User talk:Valery Starikov/Geographical direction, functionalism, the school of conflict and social‐Darwinism in macro‐sociology

The geographical direction in macro‐sociology.
'''Leo Ilyich Mechnikov about the periodization of history in depending of ways for movement. ''' The basic idea of Mechnikov consists in the fact that river’s, sea’s or ocean’s ways for movement give birth to ancient, medieval and new civilization accordingly. The theory of Vasily Osipovich Kluchevsky about the influence of the geographical environment on the Russian history. Rivers played the large role in the history of Russia. Russians is the nation of the migrants, who were moved along the rivers. The system of rivers gave the direction to trade, for example, river’s commercial way “from a Varangians in Greeks” existed in Kiev’s Russia. If Germans moved along the Roman roads after the victory above Rome, Germans settled among the ruins and fell under the influence of powerful culture, then eastern Slavs settled on the infinite plain among the backward neighbors. It is reason of a comparatively slow development of eastern Slavs and comparative simplicity of public arrangement. Russians have no time to build convenient and durable dwellings and roads. Peasant settlements in Russia produced the impression of the temporary stands of nomads.

Kluchevsky had distinguished the four periods of colonization in the Russian history, four halts or stands, by which was interrupted the motion of the Russian people: • First period was from 8 century before 13 century. Russians had arrived in the Dnepr from the Carpathians, and Kiev’s Russia was formed. • Second period was from 13 century before 15 century. The part of the Russians had gone away to the upper Volga. This period is called by Moscow’s Russia.

• Third period was from 15 century before 17 century. The majority of Russians had gone away to the Don and Middle Volga after seizure Kazan and Astrakhan.

• Fourth period was from the beginning 17 century before half 19 century. Russian people had extended throughout entire plain widely, to the Black Sea area, to the Baltic area, to Siberia, etc.

Europe is differed from Asia by the variety of shapes of surface and by the extremely twisting outline of coasts; therefore superiority in the force belongs to Europe. Black Sea steppes is the way, along which the conquerors and all these nomad hordes came of the depth of Asia to Europe. Russia is the transitional country, the mediator between two civilizations. Culture connected by Russia with Europe inseparably. But nature put on Russia the special features and influence, which drew Russia to Asia always. The absorption of counter aborigines (Finnish tribes: Komi, Estonians, Karelians, Maris) occurred in the process of migration by Russians; therefore it is necessary to allow a certain participation of Finnish tribe in the formation of the anthropological type of Great Russian. Great Russian has typical Great Russian’s nose, which lies on the wide base. This Great Russian’s nose is result of Finnish influence.

The functionalism
The main idea of functionalism: each organization, each custom, each idea and each belief have own function in the society. Authors of functionalism: G. Spencer, 3. Durkheim, B. Malinowski, A. R. Radcliff‐ Brown, R. K. Merton, P. Shtompka, T. Parsons. Malinowski and Radcliff‐Brown were anthropologists and they proved this main idea on the example of the customs, discovered by them in the primitive societies of Melanesia and Adamancies islands. In opinion of this authors the social phenomena, which do not have own function, for example conflict, is dysfunction and must disappear. In the opinion of Durkheim, the refusal of man from the performance of own family and religious functions leads to the solitude and, after all, to the suicide. Thus, society takes vengeance to man for the refusal from the performance of own functions. There were not the divisions of labor between the people in the society in the primitive society, where the people were similar to each other. Public opinion soars above the people In the contemporary society  and this public opinion dictates to people behavior. Conclusions: the mistakes of the structural functionalism are the underestimation by the role of conflicts in the society, the use of excessively abstract notions and the absence of the classification of the steps of the development of society.

The school of conflict
The main idea of school of conflict: social conflicts are inevitable, but this conflicts must be settled. L. Coser considered that the conflicts give road to large innovations, the conflicts prevent the “ossification” of society and conflicts are reason of the developments of society.

In the opinion of Coser, the functions of the conflicts, consist in the fact that, • conflicts furthers to reduction of tension between people and conflicts are “diverting canals”,

• people recognize each other through the conflicts better.

Dahrendorf considered that the conflict is result of resistance to the relations of supremacy and subordination that conflicts are the generator of changes that the suppression of conflict conducts to its aggravation, and settlement of conflict conducts to the controlled evolution. Person which is subordinate on the work can quiet his vanity by the fact that he will become leader and controller in extra‐working the time (in the sport command, in the church community, in the party organization, etc.). It cannot influence to the reasons for conflicts, but it is possible to reduce the intensity of the course of conflicts. State, law court, press ‐ these institutes settle conflicts. Geiger considers that methods, instruments and technique of class struggle were acknowledged in 20 century officially and it is designed by society legislatively, therefore methods, instruments and technique of class struggle were set under the control. Class struggle goes over the specific rules today and, therefore, class struggle lost its point. Capital and labor conclude mutual compromises, capital and labor conduct the negotiations about solution of disputes and thus capital and labor determine the working conditions (level of wages and the duration of workday). The Socialist Revolution does not threaten the West longer; therefore Marx had made a mistake in his forecasts. There are three methods of solution of conflict (method of avoidance, method of conquest or method of subjugations). Authors of the school of the conflict: L. Coser, G. Simmel, R. Dahrendorf, T. Geiger. In my opinion, the conflict can be settled if  loser recognize  only such fact that loser had become the object of control from the side of victor or loser had yielded own sphere of influence to victor. The purpose to settle conflict is the impracticable task before the moment of this acknowledgement. It is possible to settle a question about the price for the readiness to obey only.

==The idea about the struggle for survival and natural selection in biology and sociology== The idea of social evolution through natural selection was formulated by T. Malthus for first time. In his opinion, the systems of assistance for the poor man are ineffective. His ideas were used as justification for amendment to Law about the poor men in 1864 in England, this poor men were placed to terms of brutal regime for worker’s houses. Ch. Darwin and A.R. Wallace had formulated its idea about the struggle for survival after reading the book by Malthus.

Malthus as a founder of science about population growth
Its main book is “The experience about the low of population”. Malthus affirmed that food’s production growths in the world in arithmetical progression (1,2,3,4, 5 ...), whereas population of Earth growths in geometric progression (1,2,4, 8, 16 …). This leads to a situation when most of people will meet with the threat of starvation inevitably. The strength and cruel men will be able to survive in such conditions only. These ideas incited by Darwin and Wallace to the establishment in biology theories about the struggle for survival. That people can escape the poverty and starvation, epidemics and wars for a piece of bread. Further, the idea of control above   fertility    as a means of struggle with the disproportionate increase of quantity for population had become to play a central role in the concept of called Neomalthusism. People are located in the social hierarchy on the principle of most adapted, that is elite is the most adapted people, the poor men are the least adapted people.

The theory of biological evolution by Charles Darwin
According to this theory Darwin, four factors operate in the biosphere:

• heredity,

• alteration,

• the struggle for survival,

• natural selection of the most adapted beings. The essence of this theory is expressed in the following theses:

• The huge size of individual alteration of signs exists within one species. There are no two exactly same beings.

• All living organisms have the ability to quick reproduction. If there were no extermination, that the posterity of one pair can cover all Earth quickly. • The life’s resources have limited, so the struggle for survival, for a place under the Sun (for the life and possibility to have posterity) arises between beings of one species and between beings of different species or with natural conditions.

• The strongest, most adapted beings survive in this struggle; these beings have those deviations which turned out advantageous accidentally in these conditions of environment. Deviations arise in the heredity accidentally, as if God play in dice. Descendants of survived being inherit useful deviation and these descendants turn out more adapted to these conditions of environment.

• Survival and reproduction of adapted species is a natural selection.

• Natural selection of individual beings by one species in different conditions of environmental leads to divergence of signs and to the emergence of new species.

Conclusion: there are four factors of evolution‐heredity, alteration, the struggle for survival and natural selection. One difficult problem was detected within the theory of evolution under the life of Darwin already. Mathematician Jenkin indicated that favorable deviations should dissolve under reproduction. Founder of genetics Mendel had decided this problem; Mendel has proved that specie’s signs written in their genes cannot dissolve under reproduction, and specie’s signs are transferred or specie’s signs are nor transferred to posterity in constant variety. There are dominant genes and no dominant genes. The dominant gene suppresses no dominant gene under reproduction, but no dominant gene can show in the second and following generations in constant variety.

Social‐Darwinism and racism
The key thought of social‐Darwinism: the mechanism of social evolution does not differ from mechanism of biological evolution, therefore, strongest men survives in society only. Thus, factors evolution and in society, and in the biosphere are heredity, alteration, natural selection and the struggle for survival. Authors of social‐Darwinism: t. Malthus, G. Spencer, J. A. Gobino, Chamberlain, L. Voltmann, J. Lapug, F. Galton, l. Gumplovich. The Nazis had faithful scientific explanation of own monstrous experiments. Nazism was beaten during World War II decisively but Nazism was not refuted scientifically. Scientific refutation of the social Darwinism and racism as scientific foundations of Nazism is the purpose of exposition of this issue. This purpose becomes especially relevant in connection with the revival of Nazism even in Russia in the form of Chechen nationalism, activity of the Party of Russian National Unity and movement of skinheads, which organize the routs in town’s markets and which kill southerners. It need refute these seemingly attractive and dangerous theories which exploit the national and racial prejudice. The idea of evolution through natural selection flew in the air in the 19th century. Cousin of Darwin F. Galton had founded a new science ‐  eugenics as science about selection of humanity by way of artificial selection. That to select the picked human race, it need create money’s stimuluses for encouragement of entry to marriage and for acquirement of children by those who and will go pass the procedure of intellectual testing successfully. These ideas have found application in fascist Germany, where racial hygiene had embodied in expertise on good heredity, forced sterilization and in the destruction of “disabled” men in concentration camps and the gas chambers. The theory of Darwin had a stunning success in biology. Some sociologists, which are united conditionally in frames of such direction as social Darwinism, had decided to apply to method of analogy the principles biological evolution to a society, and this sociologists had decide to repeat scientific success of Darwin. G. Spencer considered that the Universe, society, social institutions and man have the evolution under the law of survival of the strongest, therefore, Spencer  criticized the Government for the subsidies for the poor men. People and organizations should develop, relying on own resources only, weak men should die or leave scenes. These ideas were very close to American colonists on a Wild West, where losers died simply. J. A. de Gobino considered that the death of all civilizations begins because of impossibility to retain the purity of race long terms that ethnic mixtures had led to degenerate of humanity, that there is an unavoidable hierarchy of races, that the white race is the most beautiful and strong, that family of the Aryans is the highest among representatives of the white race. According to Gobino, Negroes are too sensitive and unable to rational self‐control, “yellow race” is too utilitarist, striving to hard work, striving to benefits and profit, therefore “yellow race has not hence the heroic gusts and high achievement. The white race is historic race only, white race is the most beautiful, intelligent and strong. Just the representatives of white race had created all great civilizations. The Aryans is a race of the rulers, which cared about the purity of breed, for example, with help of prohibition to conclude the marriage between representatives of different caste in India. Sometimes facts contradicted to theory of Gobino, for example, Gobino called the traditional version of the Greek‐Persian wars as the monstrous lie in “The history of the Persians”, because Aryans Dariy and Xerx could not be worse then “semitezed” Greeks. Anthropologist J. V. de Lapug considered that blond dolichocephalous is the best race type thus blond hair and “long” skull is signs of the best race, the length of scull was defined with help of “the head pointer” as division of the greatest width of skull to greatest length of skull, width and length of the skulls are measured with help of a special compasses. The concept of “the head pointer” was introduced by the Swedish anatomist A. Retcius in the 1840. O Ammon organizes a number of anthropological researches among recruits and students. Sometimes the facts contradicted to this hypothesis, for example, some geniis turn out to brachicephalous (“roundhead”) and then Ammon was forced to write them into false brachicephalous. L. Gumplovich considered that the unit of social selection is not man, but the unit of social selection is ethnic group or social class, that the State is organization domination of the majority over minority that the State had arisen as the result of the struggle between hordes. Social Darwinism has a deep ideological relationship with racially‐anthropological school in sociology. An entity of ideas by racially‐anthropological school consist in that there are the best and inferior races, so it need organize   an artificial selection in concentration’s camps in the form of destruction and sterilization of disabled people. H. Chamberlain and L. Voltmann were the representatives of this direction. Chamberlain called to the revival of a mythical “Arian” spirit. Chamberlain had announced in work “Basic of the 19th century” (1899)   the creation of Tafton’s culture as the highest achievement of European history. These ideas ensured him the title of “popular thinker” in the Third Reich. Voltmann asserted on basis “genealogic” research about German origin such notable creators of Italy and France as Dante, Leonardo de Vinci, Titian, Tasso, Diderot, Rousseau. With point of view of the Nazism, if German nation want to survive, then German nation as pure race must destroy the Jews, as representatives of the inferior race. Hitler had called own arrival to power as racial revolution. Hitler considered that the State is just a tool of struggle for interests of race. Hitler considered that Marxism is planning a consistent handing over of power in the world into the hands of Jews. Hitler had adopted in 1933 Decree about hereditary health according to which the operations to sterilization were conducted in clinics relative to the persistent   and in prison’s hospitals  relative to  serious offenders. The final decision about the sterilization has been taken by special courts consisting of two doctors and one judge which were appointed officially. As wrote E. Ristov in 1935, sterilization’s operation could not be delayed even in connection with pregnancy of victims, with that the pregnancy of victim must be aborted. Ovaries of women were removed or tied up in accordance with the decision of this Court. She was forbidden the departure abroad that to restore the functions of ovaries even with help of foreign surgeons. The process was begun of murder of men in the case of incurable illness in accordance to Decree of 1939. Professor Jena’s University in period of Nazi Government G. Gunter had called heritages anthropology’s features of the Nordic race: the high height (average  height  of men ‐174 centimeters), narrow face, high nose with narrow nostrils, narrow mouth,    coming forward chin, which produces the impression of courage, light skin with flush, blond soft and not very thick hair. Incidentally, himself Adolf Hitler and the Minister of propaganda Joseph Goebbels are unlikely to be able to undergo the procedure of verification for pure blood, since Hitler and Goebbels was brunet and Hitler had low chamfered forehead. Therefore, Joseph Goebbels made by ideal of Aryan women his wife – high blond with blue eyes which has many children.

Criticism of social‐Darwinism and racism
It need begin the criticism of social‐Darwinism with that attempt to explain of social evolution with help of natural selection was correct, but social conflict is somewhat different from biological conflict. Today, norms of criminal law and system of allowances on oldness, invalidity and unemployment hinder to the process of death of losers in society. A moratorium on capital punishment has introduced in Russia today, as result of which death penalty was replaced by life imprisonment temporarily, so artificial selection cannot be applied to relation of maniacs even. But the destruction of the losers is allowed in war partially. A loser in life can to commit suicide or to die as a result consumption of drug, toxins or alcohol surrogates sometimes.

There are three kinds of conflict:

• The struggle for survival and struggle for the opportunity to have posterity. • Conflict for the status of controller. • Conflict for the sphere of influence. Darwin noticed correctly that the first kind of conflict goes in the biosphere only. Conflicts of second and third kinds are disseminated widely in society, although struggle of the first kind is applied in extreme case. The transition happens from predomination of spreading by struggle of the first kind to predomination of spreading by conflicts of second and third kinds in the process of human history. Representatives of social‐ Darwinism   did not saw these differences, this    representatives of social‐Darwinism considered that the struggle of the first kind goes  only  in society, as in the biosphere. Therefore the attempt by the representatives of social‐Darwinism to apply the theory of Darwin into society had finished unsuccessfully. Social‐Darwinism had given incorrect prognosises and incorrect recipes of development of society owing to these reasons.

Mechanism of social evolution differs from mechanism of biological evolution in following signs:

• Conflict happens in society most often not for life, but for the status of the controller, for sphere of influence and for resources, therefore, loser does not die in society usually and loser becomes object of control.

• If development takes place through stages (formations) in society, that there are periods of the predomination of any species, such as dinosaurs in the biosphere. If civilizations are  the unit of selection in society that biological species are the unit of selection in the biosphere. If the essence of any biological species can be expressed by set of information be put in genes of representatives of this species and a set of physiological signs that the essence of any civilization can be expressed by a set of social inventions which were applied under building of social structure of this civilization. For example, social structure of Russian society has developed at the expense of assimilation of such Western social inventions, as the market, private property and representative democracy as a result of reforms Yeltsin. The creation by a system of global peace will not rescind, but rather will exacerbate this global rivalry between civilizations, where civilization‐leaders will change each other more often, for example, the paces of development of East Asia outpacing the paces of development in Western Europe and USA today. • The strongest and most adapted organism wins in biosphere, and such man wins in society which is armed by the most effective instruments.

• The speed of social evolution is more then the speed of biological evolution in one thousand times approximately. The life had arisen on Earth about 4 billion years ago, and society had arisen 40‐30 thousand years ago.

• If generator of changes is a mechanism of genetic alteration in the biosphere that generator of changes is creative ability of human mind in society.

The main error of racial‐anthropological school was that its representatives called, in fact, to establish privileges for the “highest” race and to building of caste order. These privileges restrict the course of conflict that leads, on the one hand, to social stagnation, to decrease of competitiveness and to increase of dependent mentality among oligarchs. On the other hand, the establishment of caste order leads to disable by lifts of social mobility, when the natural born rulers from social bottom cannot make legitimate career and this rulers are forced to organize the social revolution with aim to destroy to the oligarchs. Caste order is built on “powder keg” always, on insuperable  conflict between applicants to elite and degenerates always. Representatives of racial‐anthropological school had proposed to build the world’s domination of the German nation, and Hitler had tried to embody this ideal to life, but Hitler had suffered the full collapse. Hitler had built the tyranny and totalitarianism, which are more backward form of Government and political regime compared with a representative democracy. Fascist and eugenics experiments to selection of highest race with help of artificial selection contradict to the principles of humanism and democracy. The Nazis tried to organize in practice the physical destruction of Jews and Gypsies. 6 millions the Jews perish as a result of Nazi experiment roughly. Attempt of   Hitler to build in practice an utopia about    world’s domination of the German nation and to begin the second world war had caused to the deaths of 55 million men that including 27 million 500 000 Russians approximately. The collapse of the fascist experiment had showed that attempt to organize the artificial selection of people is doomed to failure. Humanity builds the global world today, where inevitable migration and intermingling of various nationalities and races happens. There are not the place for the policy of “racial hygiene” (artificial selection of nations with help of forced sterilization and destroying of peoples in concentration camps) in the global world. Nationalism of advanced Nations was beaten decisively as a result of the second world war, but nationalism of backward Nations threatens to world much more today. Any Empire, such as Roman Empire, Empire of Alexander Macedonian, Russia or the USA arises with help of the conquests and any Empire is a national cauldron, where nation mix. Propaganda of nationalism in such multinational countries like Russia and USA can lead to civil war, and civil war is worst for this countries. Conclusion: the results of the Nazi experiments to embodying in life of social‐ Darwinism theory had horrified the entire world.