User:Sunnivaminsaas/sandbox

Wiki book: Scientific Racism
Seminar feedback: 05/12/18
 * Condense academically researched topics (already explored - paragraph 1 and 2) and focus on expanding and developing media paragraph, cultural divisions.
 * Psychological effects of divisions and racism - psychological affect on society (racial democracy?).
 * Literature of Brazil - comparison over the years - representation of race in books - impact on identity and society.
 * Does racism in media and culture (art) impact political policy?
 * Impact of culture and racism on biology - marriages, mixed heritage children in modern Brazil.

Discussion 27/11:

Shift of focus of the chapter from imperialism's impact on institutional racism in North and South America, to the impact of imperialism on the promotion of 'whitening' in Brazil and Indonesia.

Potential question: To what extent has imperialism resulted in the promotion (or advertisement?) of 'whitening' in Brazil and Indonesia?

Main areas of research:
 * the imperial history of Brazil and Indonesia (or other areas of Asia)
 * the racial and economic division of Brazil (North Eastern region in comparison to Sao Paulo)
 * the racial hierarchy in Brazil as a product of imperialism
 * the 'white ideal' that many in Asia and South America aspire to (created by the existing racial hierarchy)
 * how advertising has led these areas of the world to aspire to this 'white ideal', contributing to their 'whitening'

 Essay structure: 

Introduction Main argument: The promotion of 'whitening' in both Latin America and Asia is to a great extent a result of imperialism.

Literary review Argument 1: The 'white ideal' (outline - what is it?)
 * research into the 'whitening' of Brazil and Indonesia
 * imperial history of the two countries (history of slavery in Brazil)
 * link between the two - how has imperialism influences 'whitening'

Argument 2: The 'white ideal' as a product of hierarchies Argument 3: Hierarchies as a product of imperialism
 * Racial hierarchies of Brazil create a physical and economic 'white ideal' (ideal enforced through economic inequality, standards of living, government policy)
 * Hierarchies of beauty associated with race create the 'white ideal' of beauty in Asia (evidenced through the popularity of whitening products in the cosmetic industry and use of pale models in advertising). But also in Brazil in which there exists a European standard of beauty --> look for example at Brazilian models
 * Globalisation of the 'white ideal' --> models used in advertisement etc
 * Soft power - how this concept describes the way in which 'whitening' has come about from Western influence
 * Comparison of hierarchies during imperial/colonial times to modern hierarchies

Conclusion
 * Globalisation and capitalism = modern imperialism
 * Western ideals and values dominate in globalisation
 * Example of the 'white ideal' and 'whitening' in Brazil can be applied to South America
 * Example of the 'white ideal' and 'whitening' in Indonesia can be applied to the majority of Asia
 * Imperialism is largely responsible for the aspiration of achieving the 'white ideal'

Literature


 * From the book  'Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought' by Skidmore (1993) 
 * Brazil has a multi racial system based upon the notion that the 'caucasian' or 'white' race considered to be at the top of the social pyramid (p. 44)
 * This social pyramid or hierarchy in Brazilian society due to colonialism and slavery.
 * Brazil had an agrarian economy when slavery was abolished 1888 with landowners who were white or mulatto and lower workers being poor whites and free coloured, thus a hierarchy "in which social classification correlated highly with colour had developed as an integral part of the slave based colonial economy" (p. 39) --> after abolition the pattern and relations between now free slaves and employers remained mainly the same --> socially superior and inferior
 * Mobility in society depended on appearance (the more “Negroid” the less mobile) and degree of ‘whiteness’ (education, manners, wealth)
 * The Brazilian elite wanted to 'whiten' the Brazilian population as they generally believed whiter to be better or more superior to coloured.
 * "During the high period of racist thought 1880 to 1920 the “whitening” ideology gained scientific legitimacy, because racist doctrines came to be interpreted by Brazilians as supporting the view that the 'superior’  white race would prevail in the process of racial amalgamation (p. 46)
 * Brazilian elite supported immigration of Europeans to Brazil as a part of the whitening ideology
 * Roosvelt; "wrote an enthusiastic article about the disappearance of the Brazilian negro in Outlook magazine in 1914"  He wrote that;  "In Brazil (...) the idea looking forward to us the disappearance of the Negro question through the disappearance of the Negro himself - that is, through his gradual absorption into the white race"  "The very large European immigration of itself tends, decade by decade, to make the Negro blood a smaller element of the blood of the whole community"


 * "The Myth of White Skin: A Postcolonial Review of Cosmetics Ads in Indonesia", Roro Retno Wulan (2017).
 * Argues that the “colonial beauty myth attached to women in colonial territory” (slim figure, pale skin and blond hair) is still present today, perpetuated by the spread of capitalism and advertising in Indonesia.
 * Women in the third world are exposed to Western beauty ideals through “patriarchy and capitalism as a form of modern imperialism”.
 * Suggests that the obsession of achieving the white skin (and the white ideal) in Asian women was “rooted in the colonial period” - whiteness being associated with cleanliness.
 * Many cosmetic and hygiene products in Indonesia use “white skin” to brand and advertise their products.
 * “the obsession with white can be categorised as a colonial nostalgia or even colonial trauma.” (referenced as A. Prabasmoro, Becoming White: Representasi Ras, Kelas, Femininitas dan Globalitas Dalam Iklan Sabun. Bandung: Matahari, (2003)).
 * Compares achieving the ‘white ideal’ of beauty in Asia to “being beautiful, as recognised by the global community” - shows how far reaching Western ideas of beauty have spread (global), which in part can be attributed to European imperialism and the spread of European ideas and values through colonialism.


 * "The Colour of Modernity: Sao Paulo and the Making of Race and Nation in Brazil", (2015) Barbara Weinstein.
 * In Brazil’s development, Sao Paulo emerged as a “growth pole” where economic progress was concentrated. This caused significant interregional inequalities in Brazil - Sao Paulo in the South being associated with wealth and ‘progress’ (where the majority of European/White immigrants lived) and the Nordeste (the North-Eastern region) being associated with poverty and ‘backwardness’ (where the population was largely Native Brazilian).
 * With regions being divided by their social and economic development (influenced by their imperial history), people also began to be divided by their differences associated with the regions of Brazil - racialising these inequalities.
 * Sao Paulo’s economic prosperity was founded in their coffee economy established on slave labour - by the 1880s was the leading producer of coffee in Brazil.
 * The city’s economic/business prospects drew European settlers, causing the population to increase (1880s).
 * Economic successes of Sao Paulo are central to its regional identity. Their success is emphasised by the North’s identity plagued by poverty, droughts and a stagnant economy (reinforcing the associated of the ‘whiteness’ of Sao Paulo to its ‘progress’).
 * These links between ‘progress’ and ‘whiteness’, and ‘blackness’ and ‘backwardness’, were established during the popularity of scientific racism in Sao Paulo shortly prior to their abolition of slavery in 1888.
 * “men of wealth and education” saw European settlers as “the key to modernising the post-emancipation economy and considered the large population of colour to be a “problem” for the future of the Brazilian Nation.” (pp.5)
 * Roots of racial hierarchy in imperialism - argues that “implicitly… reproduced negative constructions of blackness and African culture… were staples of Brazilian slave society.” (pp.6)
 * Concept of ‘internal colonialism’ (Marquard, 1957) used to describe the relationship between Sao Paulo and the Nordeste - in the “hierarchy of regions” Sao Paulo is placed as the centre of Brazil, with great economic and political power.
 * The region of Sao Paulo is being more frequently used to represent the national identity of Brazil (Sao Paulo = white) because of internal colonialism.
 * Method of whitening used by the government - Republic Constitution of 1891 established selective immigration, which explicitly discriminated again Asians and Africans in favour of white Europeans.


 * "Culling the Masses: The Democratic Origins of Racist Immigration Policy in the Americas", (2014) David Scott Fitzgerald and David Cook-Martin.
 * Government policy was controlled by elites in favour of European migration - argues that “governing elites strove toward their aspiration of whitening the nation by preserving administrative discretion.” (pp.260)
 * Portuguese Empire - large migration of Portuguese to Brazil in the 16th century - “the vast majority were men who emigrated alone and entered into unions with native or African-origin women.” (beginning of the whitening process) (pp.263)
 * Economic success of Brazil dependent on the supply of African slave labour.
 * Transformation of the “demographic landscape” by importation of slaves - “civil and religious codes distinguished individuals by their “purity of blood”... but ethnic intermarriage was relatively common and, in some cases, officially encouraged.” (pp.264)
 * Imperial period began in 1822 with the crowning of Emperor Pedro I (son of the King of Portugal, Dom Joao) as Brazil broke away from Portugal as a colony.
 * Imperial economic shift (activity moving from the North East to Southern Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo) brought about a new immigration policy as Brazil’s economy began to rely less on slave labour and more on free, migrant workers.
 * Immigration policy was conducted at a provincial level by large landowners (who had the power to do so), who had “established as network of recruiters in Europe to recruit labour”, due to the weaknesses of central government during the 19th century. (pp.265)
 * “There were no formal ethnic, racial, or national-origin exclusions of immigrants during the imperial period.” - main concern was national security.
 * Abolition of slavery occurred in 1888 due to the global embarrassment Brazil would have incurred if they had not done so.
 * Skidmore (explanation for favouring European labour to native) - Afro-Brazilians were seen as physically inferior, Europeans had ‘work ethic’ and had “already been disciplined to the “rhythms of urban work””, and they would “improve the quality of the country’s racial stock and contribute to the whitening process so important to selling Brazil abroad.” (pp.266)
 * ^Argues that the whitening process of Brazil was perceived as key to the country’s acceptance abroad - white and wealthy, progressive = desirable, however, slavery, racism and discrimination = undesirable (past the late 19th century).
 * Primary reason for whitening was to be recognised as a modern nation - “demographic requirements for modernity informed worries about Brazil’s whiteness.” (pp.266)
 * Argues that the whitening ideology in Brazil emerges “during the imperial period but became even more virulent during the early republic.” (pp.267)
 * During the 1870s there were many recommendations to introduce Chinese immigrants to supply labour in agriculture, but they were only given temporary migration rights unlike Europeans.
 * A process of “conciliation and formal institutional change… gave the impression of making concessions without altering the structural status quo” (pp.268) - although they changed some things formally to contain social conflict after the deposition of the monarchy, nothing changed in the structure of Brazil as nation from an empire to a republic.
 * Their immigration policy continued on from the empire - mass European immigration.
 * Immigrants 1887-1930: Italian >30%, Portuguese <30%, Spanish around 15%.
 * 1920, 70% of Italians in Brazil lived in the city of Sao Paulo, while 80% of Spaniards lived in the state.


 * Illuminating the blackness: Blacks and African Muslims in Brazil, Habeeb Akande (2016), Rabaah Publishers, London.
 * (pp.80) White elites became concerned with the large black population causing deterioration of society after 1888 - so they began to devise a way to minimise the blackness of Brazil in an effort to avoid the threat of being overrun by savages. - “the threat of deterioration posed by the presence of black blood.”
 * Led to the development of racial whitening - based on Social Darwinism (natural selection applied to race) and Aryanism (white = superior) - supported by work in eugenics (Lamarckian eugenics) and scientific racism - encouragement of miscegenation (interbreeding of people of different races).
 * “Whitening… can be considered in both a symbolic and biological sense. Symbolically, whitening represents the ideology that emerged from the legacy of European colonialism in Latin America that catered to white dominance. Biologically, whitening is the process of having children with light-skinned individuals in order to produce lighter skinned offspring.” (pp.82) lit review/intro 
 * Argues that the whitening policy ended in 1940 after the mass immigration of Europeans had impacted demographics in Brazil - black population decreased from 19.9% in 1872 to 14.6% in 1940,while the white population increased from 38% to 63.5%.
 * Colourism = categorisation by skin colour.
 * Skin bleaching/whitening products are “Capitalising on ideas of racial hierarchies… for which companies continue to promote the idea both that white skin is equivalent to beauty and that lightening dark skin is achievable and preferable.” (pp.109)
 * National survey in 1995 found that 43% of Brazilians agreed that “negroes are only good in sport and music”.
 * Another survey found that many black Brazilians also hold similar stereotypical images of themselves - showing the impact of the portrayal of black characters in the media.

 'The Persistent Problem of Colorism' by M. Hunter (2007)

Abstract:


 * “Colorism is directly related to the larger system of racism in the USA and around the world”
 * “The Color complex is also exported around the global, in part through US media images, and helps to sustain the multibillion dollar skin bleaching and cosmetic surgery industries”

Introduction


 * Colourism can be distinct from race —> Two people can have the same race, but varying skin tone. Discrimination depend on what level of skin tone.
 * “Many people are unaware of their preferences for lighter skin, because that dominant aesthetic is so deeply ingrained in our culture”
 * “In the USA for example we are bombarded with images of white and light skin and Anglo facial features. White beauty is the standard and the ideal (Kilbourne, 1999)

Historical origins


 * “Colourism has roots in the European colonial project (Jordan, 1968)
 * "Colorism for Latinos and African Americans has its roots in European colonialism and slavery in the Americas. Both systems operated as forms of white domination that rewarded those who emulated whiteness culturally, ideologically, economically, and even aesthetically. Light‐skinned people received privileges and resources that were otherwise unattainable to their darker‐skinned counterparts. White elites ruling the colonies maintained white superiority and domination by enlisting the assistance of the ‘colonial elite’, often a small light‐skinned class of colonized people (Fanon 1967)."
 * Traces from the colonial history is still present in Mexico today with it’s color-class system
 * " Ronald Hall (1994, 1995, 1997) suggests that ‘the bleaching syndrome’ the internalisation of a white aesthetic ideal, is the result of the historic legacy of slavery and colonialism around the globe . He argues that many African Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans have internalised the colonial and slavery value systems and learned to valorize light skin tones and Anglo facial features. He understands this deeply rooted cultural value as a cause of psychological distress and socioeconomic stratification.”
 * In many former European colonies, there remains an overt legacy of Eurocentrism and white racism in the culture (Memmi 1965). Whites or light‐skinned elites continue to hold powerful positions in the economy, government, and educational sectors. Embedded in the leftover colonial structure is a strong and enduring value of white aesthetics (e.g. light hair, straight hair, light eyes, narrow noses, and light skin). This is evident in Latin American popular culture, for example, in the telenovelas, where almost all of the actors look white, unless they are the maids and are then light brown (Jones 2004).
 * In 2003, social science researchers found that Latinos who identified as white earned about $5000 more per year than Latinos who identified as black, and about $2500 more per year than Latinos who identified as ‘some other race’ (Fears 2003). A clear hierarchy is evident among Latinos with white Latinos at the top, ‘others’ in the middle, and black Latinos at the bottom. White Latinos also had lower unemployment rates and lower poverty rates than black Latinos (Fears 2003). Their findings are consistent with other work in this area (Montalvo 1987). Dark skin costs for Latinos, in terms of income (Telles and Murguia 1990) and occupational prestige (Espino and Franz 2002).
 * Light‐skinned or white Latinos have clear and significant advantages in income and wealth relative to their darker or black‐identified counterparts (Telles and Murguia 1990). Richard Alba, John Logan, and Brian Stults studied housing access, ownership, and segregation. They found that, ‘Hispanics who describe themselves as black are in substantially poorer and less white neighbourhoods than their compatriots who describe themselves as white

Gender, beauty, and the global color complex


 * The new global racism transcends national borders and infiltrates cultures and families all over the world. It draws on historical ideologies of colonialism and internalized racism buttressed with visions of a new world order. Images associated with white America are highly valued and emulated in the global marketplace . This is part of what makes colorism and racism so hard to battle: the images supporting these systems are everywhere and the rewards for whiteness are real. In addition to wrestling with the values of their colonial pasts, many Third World nations are also contending with the onslaught of US‐produced cultural images valorizing whiteness and especially white femininity (and the occasional version of light brown femininity). Television, film, Internet, and print ads all feature white women with blond hair as not only the cultural ideal, but the cultural imperative. White and light‐skinned people are rewarded accordingly.
 * Skin‐bleaching creams go by many names: skin lighteners, skin whiteners, skin‐toning creams, skin evening creams, skin‐fading gels, etc. Essentially, they are creams regularly applied to the face or body that purport to ‘lighten’, ‘brighten’, or ‘whiten’ the skin. They are marketed as beauty products available to women to increase their beauty, by increasing their whiteness. The skin bleaching industry is thriving around the globe, particularly in Third World, postcolonial countries (Mire 2001).
 * Skin lighteners are commonly used in places including Mexico, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Jamaica, the Philippines, Japan, India, Tanzania, Senegal, Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya, Ghana, and less so, but also USA (Charles 2003; Chisholm 2002; Easton 1998; Kovaleski 1999; Mahe et al. 2004; Schuler 1999). These products are everywhere and easy to get, from the Asian market on the corner, to major cosmetic retailers online.
 * For many people around the world, skin bleaching seems like one of the few ways to get a piece of the pie in a highly racialized society. Skin‐lightening products constitute a multibillion dollar industry. These products usually contain one of three harmful ingredients: mercury, hydroquinone, or corticosteroids (sometimes used in combination).
 * In fact, the pursuit of light skin color can be so important it can prove fatal. A Harvard medical school researcher found outbreaks of mercury poisoning in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Tanzania. He came to learn that the mercury poisoning, found almost exclusively in women, was caused by the widespread use of skin‐bleaching creams containing toxic levels of mercury (Counter 2003)
 * The same team of Harvard researchers found outbreaks of mercury poisoning in the southwestern USA where thousands of Mexican American women use skin‐bleaching creams to try to achieve a lighter and more valued complexion. In Latin America, Africa, and many parts of Asia, whiteness is such an important commodity that many women overlook what they perceive to be minor risks in order to attain for themselves or their children the benefits of light skin.
 * Eyelid surgery, lighter skin creams and nose jobs —> Anglo features
 * “One of the most common high school graduation presents among the elite in Mexico City is a nose job with the plastic surgeon” (Taylor, 2002)

Draft
Imperialism can be defined as the expansion of power and control. Traditionally this power has been expanded over territories and people through colonialism. However, imperialism can also be viewed as cultural with the current expansion of western ideals through globalisation. Such expansions have historically been conducted by ‘westerners’ who exert their power and influence over ‘non westerners’ thus establishing certain ideals. The notion of a racial hierarchy and a ‘white ideal’ are such beliefs, that has had impacts on the perception of race in different countries. (In Brazil, a previous Portuguese colony, the strategy of ‘whitening’ has been implemented. In many Asian countries such as Indonesia there has been an increased focus on ‘whitening’ cosmetic products to achieve a ‘white ideals’.) This chapter will analyse to what extent imperialism has resulted in the promotion of ‘whitening’ in Brazil and Indonesia. And will argue that the promotion of ‘whitening’ in both Latin America and Asia is to a great extent a result of imperialism, through the colonial legacy and the globalisation of western ideals. (138 words without the text in parentheses)

Firstly,

Further,

Finally,

Example

To conclude,

Literary review:

Specific example and research question:

Other ideas or comments?

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Links

Wikipedia links;

Scientific Racism

Other;

[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_394 Paludi M.A., Haley S. (2014) Scientific Racism. In: Teo T. (eds) Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology. Springer, New York, NY]

Actual written work;

If anyone writes something for the draft :)

Definition of scientific racism

Scientific racism is considered a pseudoscience, which utilises methodology that relies upon physical and biological attributes such as skin colour, hair texture and bone structure among others to determine intelligence. This thus creates what Richards describes as a hierarchy to support ideologies about racial supremacy (Richards, 2012). This hierarchy suggests that some races are superior, whilst others are inferior. Thompson argues that the creation of a hierarchy of races is a "deliberate attempt to justify and protect a system that allows exploitation of ‘inferior’ people so that ‘superior’ people can reap economic and political rewards” (Thompson, 2007). Such systems can be found in the slave trade in the United States in the 18th and 19th century and in the apartheid regime in South Africa.

The notion of a racial differences and a hierarchy between these, can be traced back a long time, with Carl Linnaeus’ distinction of the human species based of physical attributes in his 1767 book ‘Systema Naturae’. Linnaeus identifies five different races;  Americanus, Europeanus, Asiaticus, Africanus and Monsterous.

Haiti and DR (from previous writing)

Imperialism can be defined as the expansion of power and control (traditionally, over a specific territory or people). The assertion of control over regions by European imperialists effected the development of culture, social values and hierarchies within colonies and still does despite the end of their imperialism. We looked to explore what traces of imperialism are still present in modern society, in both colonised and colonising countries.

How traces of imperialist thinking are present in modern society is very evident when looking at previous colonies. Previous colonies have had their economy, politics and beliefs fundamentally shaped by colonial powers. One example of this is the case of Haiti and The Dominican Republic. These two nations share the island Hispaniola but their standard of living is vastly different. Haiti is a poor and struggling country, whilst The Dominican Republic is relatively stable and prosperous. The difference is mainly due to how the countries were treated differently by those that colonised them. Haiti was colonised by the French who exploited land and people, whilst Spain who colonised the dominicans intermarried with the population.

The traces of imperialism today can be seen by Haiti’s struggle to develop and the Dominicans believing themselves to be racially superior to Haitians as they believe their heritage to be more european. Blackness is by Dominicans "widely viewed as a negative attribute” (Ferguson, 2003). These notions reflect the idea that people can be divided into different categories based on e.g. racial characteristics and then ranked accordingly. This creation of a racial hierarchy has strong roots in Imperialism and the belief that some are more superior. Thus, in the case of Haiti and the Dominican Republic Imperialism has not only left traces but complex problems that remain unsolved.

Wiki book: Street art and imperialism
Another idea to have on the side

Ideas:

Politics of street art


 * hierarchy and domination
 * claiming spaces and territory (started from gangs in NY)
 * American influence which spread
 * Political protest
 * Form of art or vandalism?

Research question ideas

To what extent does imperialism reflect the culture of street art (as in its roots from New York)

How has imperialism impacted the culture of street art?

How can the evolution of the structure of street art be explained by imperialism?

The street art movement within in a time period (70s and 80s)

To what extent has street art emerged as a response to X (imperialism/colonialism) in X (country) Latin America ?

foreign intervention by the US in specific Latin American country in in X time period. Conclusion: as a protest to foreign intervention usually by US.

To what extent has street art emerged in Norther Ireland as a response to British intervention in the struggles? Northern Ireland —> all political and from the times of the struggles, division between northern Ireland and the republic. English intervention in Ireland directly represented in the stories told

Imperialism
Imperialism work:

How colonialism effected Haiti and DR differently. https://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/MRG_Rep_Caribbean.pdf

Structure of paragraph:

Introduction

Imperialism can be defined as the expansion of power and control (traditionally, over a specific territory or people). The assertion of control over regions by European imperialists effected the development of culture, social values and hierarchies within colonies and still does despite the end of their imperialism. We looked to explore what traces of imperialism are still present in modern society, in both colonised and colonising countries. Researching this, we focussed our attention on three topics: how European colonialism has effected the development of colonies, how imperialism has influenced geopolitics and our view of the world, and how the idea of imperialism has been applied to disciplines within academia.

Haiti and DR

How traces of imperialist thinking are present in modern society is very evident when looking at previous colonies. Previous colonies have had their economy, politics and beliefs fundamentally shaped by colonial powers. One example of this is the case of Haiti and The Dominican Republic. These two nations share the island Hispaniola but their standard of living is vastly different. Haiti is a poor and struggling country, whilst The Dominican Republic is relatively stable and prosperous. The difference is mainly due to how the countries were treated differently by those that colonised them. Haiti was colonised by the French who exploited land and people, whilst Spain who colonised the dominicans intermarried with the population.

The traces of imperialism today can be seen by Haiti’s struggle to develop and the Dominicans believing themselves to be racially superior to Haitians as they believe their heritage to be more european. Blackness is by Dominicans "widely viewed as a negative attribute” (Ferguson, 2003). These notions reflect the idea that people can be divided into different categories based on e.g. racial characteristics and then ranked accordingly. This creation of a racial hierarchy has strong roots in Imperialism and the belief that some are more superior. Thus, in the case of Haiti and the Dominican Republic Imperialism has not only left traces but complex problems that remain unsolved.

Geopolitical imagination

Geopolitics looks at how political relationships are influenced by geographical factors. Key to geopolitics is the concept of the geopolitical imagination, which is the way in which countries perceive their own and others’ place in the world, influencing how we interact with people and places on a global scale. Agnew explains that the foundations of the geopolitical imagination lie in European imperialism of the early 16th century with exploration in the Americas and Asia through the construction of maps from a Eurocentric perspective. Europeans viewed themselves as the centre of ‘civilisation’ and the world order leading them to order civilisations they came into contact with in a hierarchy of social and geopolitical significance. This hierarchy of civilisations is still present in modern society; evident in the division between the developed and the developing, the west and the east. The geopolitical imagination is still very much centred around European/Western values and perspectives of the world - demonstrating how there are still traces of imperialism in modern society.

Academics with link to interdisciplinary

Imperialism is also still present in modern society in the form of academic imperialism - the domination of one discipline over another in a competition for superiority. This looks at imperialism as a concept in a slightly different way to the previous two examples, focussing more on ideological rather than territorial expansion. In his article, Stillman explores the issues that academic imperialism creates in interdisciplinary research, as academics dedicated to one discipline are less open to others’ theories as they challenge their way of looking at the world (which they believe to be correct). However, Lazear takes a slightly different approach to academic imperialism, looking specifically at economic imperialism. He suggests that, in economics, the expansion of the discipline to explain things in other areas of social sciences has encouraged interdisciplinary study within economics (viewing imperialism as a positive attribute of the subject). The imperialism of economics as a discipline shows how the ideology is still present in modern society in more ways than one - in the lasting impacts of colonial imperialism of the past and in the study of academic disciplines.

Conclusion

To conclude, the examples of geopolitical imagination, colonialism in Haiti and The Dominican Republic, and academic disciplines highlight how traces of imperialism is still present in modern society. These examples illustrate how the categorisation of aspects such as people, disciplines and geopolitical imagination are organised in hierarchies in which one thing is considered superior to another. These constructed hierarchies influence how we interact with other people and the world around us. Thus, traces of imperialism are evident in most aspects of life.