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Tahirids
Tahir ibn Husayn (Arabic, Persian: طاهر بن حسين)(died 822) was a general and governor during the Abbasid caliphate. Specifically, he served under al-Ma'mun and led the armies that would defeat al-Amin, making al-Ma'mun the caliph. He was born in Phoshang which is a village in ancient city of Herat (then Khorasan present day Afghanistan).

Afterwards, Tahir was made governor of the eastern Abbasid lands, effectively making him governor of Persia. Tahir later declared independence from the Abbasid empire in 822 by omitting any mention of al-Ma'mun during a Friday sermon. However, he died the same night and al-Ma'mun appointed Tahir's son to continue at his father's post. This established the Tahirid dynasty, which ruled a semi-autonomous state in eastern Persia.

Tahir commissioned the Christian theologian, Theodore Abu Qurrah (d. c. 830) to translate the pseudo-Aristotelian De virtutibus animae into Arabic from Greek.

Talha ibn Tahir (طلحة بن طاهر) (died 828) was the Tahirid governor of Khurasan from 822 until his death.

In 822 Tahir ibn Husayn, who had taken control of Khurasan the pervious year, died. According to some reports, the caliph Al-Ma'mun at first supporting replacing him with Talha's brother Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani, but the latter was occupied with rebels in Al-Jazira, so Talha was confirmed as governor of eastern Iran instead.

Talha's rule is mostly known for his campaigns in Sistan, another province under his rule, against the local Kharijites, who were led by a Hamza ibn Adharak. Fighting between the two continued until 828, when both Hamza and Talha died. Talha was succeeded in his post by his brother Abd-Allah.

Abdullah ibn Tahir (Arabic: عبد الله بن طاهر الخراساني ) (c. 798–844/5) was the Tahirid governor of Khurasan from 828 until his death. He is perhaps the most famous of the Tahirids.

Abdullah's early career consisted serving with his father Tahir ibn Husayn in pacifying the lands of the Caliphate following the civil war between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun. He later succeeded his father as governor of Al-Jazira, with the task of defeating the rebel Nasr b. Shabath, and between 824 and 826 convinced Nasr to surrender. He was then sent to Egypt, where he successfully ended an uprising led by 'Abd-Allah ibn al-Sari. He also recovered Alexandria, which had been seized by Andalusian Muslim refugees seven years before; following their expulsion, the refugees headed to Byzantine Crete, establishing Muslim rule there for the first time.

Although Abdullah had been made the governor of Khurasan following his brother's death in 828, he only arrived in Nishapur in 830; in the meantime he had been busy fighting more revolts. He was assigned for a brief time in 829 to stop the Khurramite Babak, but then was given new orders by the caliph to move to Khurasan and stop the Kharijites. Abdullah's brother 'Ali acted as deputy governor of Khurasan until he was ready to take up residence in Nishapur.

During his reign as governor Abdullah was occupied with affairs on both the eastern and western parts of his territories. In the east, he took steps to improving the strength of the Samanids, his vassals in Transoxiana. The Samanids were important, as they controlled the trade between Central Asia and the central Caliphate, including the trade of Turkish slaves. Also in the east in 834 an Alid, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, revolted in Juzjan, but Abdullah's forces eventually managed to capture him.

In the west, meanwhile, Abdullah came into conflict with the local ruler of Tabaristan, the Ispahbad Mazyar b. Qarin. As the ruler of the east, Abdullah claimed Tabaristan as a dependency and insisted that the tribute owed by Mazyar to the caliph should pass through him. Mazyar, however, was looking to expand his dominion and wanted to be free of Tahirid influence, so he refused to accept this and demanded that he be able to pay his tribute directly to the caliph. In this struggle Mazyar had the support of the Afshin, who allegedly wanted to control the Tahirid lands himself. Abdullah was able to turn the caliph against Mazyar, and in 839 was ordered to stop the Ispahbad. Mazyar, a recent convert to Islam, heavily relied on the Zoroastrians of the province but in the end was captured, sent to Iraq and executed. Tahirid control over Tabaristan was therefore secured until the Zaydid revolt of 864.

Abdullah died in Nishapur, either at the end of 844 or in 845. He was succeeded by his son Tahir.

Tahir bin 'Abd-Allah (d. 862) was the Tahirid governor of Khurasan from 845 until 862.

During his father 'Abd-Allah's lifetime, Tahir was sent into the steppes to the north in order to keep the Oghuz Turks in line; he probably received Samanid assistance in this venture. When 'Abd-Allah died in 844, the Caliph al-Wathiq originally appointed another Tahirid, Ishaq b. Ibrahim b. Mus'ab, as his successor in Khurasan, but then reversed this decision and confirmed Tahir as governor.

Little is known about Tahir's reign, although there was unrest in some of the outlying provinces. Sistan, for example, was lost to the Tahirids when the 'ayyar leader Salih b. al-Nadr drove out Tahir's governor and took power there himself. Tahir died in 862; his will stated that his young son Muhammad should succeed him as governor, and this was honored by the caliph.

Muhammad bin Tahir (d. c. 890) was last the Tahirid governor of Khurasan, from 862 until 873.

Governor of Khurasan
When Muhammad's father Tahir bin 'Abd-Allah died in 862, the caliph wanted to replace him with Muhammad b. 'Abd-Allah, but after the latter refused he appointed Muhammad as governor. The caliph however did not grant Muhammad other titles usually reserved for the Tahirid governor of Khurasan, such as the military governorship of Iraq and Baghdad, but instead gave them to Muhammad b. 'Abd-Allah.

When he became governor, Muhammad was still young and rather inexperienced. Only two years after he succeeded his father, Tabaristan was lost to a Zaidi revolt and the Tahirids were unable to recover the province. In 867 the Saffarid amir of Sistan, Ya'qub bin Laith, took Herat and imprisoned its Tahirid governor. An army was dispatched under the Samanid Ibrahim ibn Ilyas to stop Ya'qub, but was defeated, after which Muhammad was forced to come to terms. During this time Muhammad also tried to gain the offices in the West that had been given to Muhammad b. 'Abd-Allah. After the latter died in 867 his brother 'Ubaydallah b. 'Abd-Allah had taken over the offices. In opposition to 'Ubaydallah, Muhammad sent his uncle Sulayman b. 'Abd-Allah as his representative in Iraq, and Sulayman was able to gain the posts at the expense of 'Ubaydallah, although he would eventually lose them.

The weakness of Muhammad b. Tahir's rule in Khurasan would eventually lead to the end of Tahirid rule there. In 873 the Saffarid Ya'qub marched on Muhammad's capital, Nishapur. Muhammad refused to flee and was captured by the Saffarids. For three years he remained in captivity, but was freed by caliphal forces after the Saffarids were defeated at the Battle of Dair al-'Aqul in 876. After he was freed the caliph reinvested him with the governorship of Khurasan, although Muhammad never asserted his authority there. Several anti-Saffarid partisans in Khurasan, such as Ahmad al-Khujistani and Rafi' ibn Laith, placed Muhammad's name in the khutba in areas they managed to control, but Muhammad never exercised any actual authority over them.

Later life
After being freed by the caliph Muhammad took up residence in Baghdad and from there attempted to gain the offices held by 'Ubaydallah b. 'Abd-Allah. This conflict between the two Tahirids would continue for several years. In 879 the Saffarid Ya'qub died and was succeeded by his brother Amr bin Laith. Amr reached an agreement with the caliph and was invested with Khurasan, replacing Muhammad. As the governor of Khurasan, Amr now asserted the rights formally held by the Tahirids to nominate his representative for the offices in the West; his choice fell on 'Ubadydallah. Amr also used his influence to have Muhammad arrested for allegedly supporting Khujistani, although there was little evidence to support this.

Muhammad regained caliphal favor when the peace between the caliphate and the Saffarids fell out in around 884. He was made governor of Baghdad in place of 'Ubaydallah and regained the title of governor of Khurasan, though as before he was never able to reestablish his rule in that province. He died sometime around 890.

Saffarids
Like the Tahirids, the Saffrids, too, were adventurers from Eastern Iran who had previously been nominally subject to the Caliphs.

Yakub ibn Laith
Yakub ibn Laith was the son of a pewterer of Sistan. He started life as an ironworker but dissatisfied with his earnings, he took to banditry and rose to become chief of highway robbers. A local chieftain sought Yakub's help to establish an independent state of his own. bin Laith obliged but on the success of the campaign, he immediately overthrew his master and established himself as the chief of Sistan. His power and influence reached its zenith when the Caliph of Baghdad recognised him as the independent ruler of Sistan and offered to crown him as Emperor.

However, Yakub refused and sent him a rebuttal.

Tell the Caliph that I am already indebted to my sword for the territories he so generously bestows upon me. If I live, that sword shall decide between us - if I die, he shall be freed from apprehensions.

Yakub died in 877 and was succeeded by his brother Amir.

Amir ibn Laith
Amir succeeded Yakub in 877 and commenced his reign by sending a letter of tribute to the Caliph Motaded. However, soon, his friendship began to whither away as the two powers had frequent territorial disputes. The Caliph invaded Sistan but was defeated. He nstigated the Samanid chief Ismael to attack Sistan. Ismael successfully vanquished Sistan and captured Amir. He was taken to Baghdad and put to death in 901.

Abu Ahmad Khalaf (November 937-March 1009) was the Saffarid amir of Sistan from 963 until 1002. Although he was renowned in the eastern Islamic world as a scholar, his reign was characterized by violence and instability, and Saffarid rule over Sistan came to an end with his deposition.

Early life
Khalaf was born in the middle of November 937 to Abu Jafar Ahmad and Banu, a granddaughter of Amr bin Laith. Little is known about the first twenty-six years of his life; presumably much of it was spent learning. From 957 or 958 at the latest he was recognized as heir to the throne and his name was included on his father's coins.

Succession to the Amirate
At the end of March 963 Abu Ja'far Ahmad was murdered in Zarang. At the time of the assassination, Khalaf had been outside the capital. When he heard about his father's death, he rode for the town of Bust, whose governor immediately pledged his support. Soon afterward he led an army against Zarang, which was under the control of a rival Saffarid named Abu Hafs b. Muhammad. Seeing Khalaf's army, Abu Hafs fled the capital and sought refuge in Samanid Khurasan, allowing Khalaf to enter Zarang.

Shortly after Khalaf was proclaimed amir, he proclaimed Abu'l-Husayn Tahir his co-ruler. Abu'l-Husayn Tahir, who was descended from the Saffarids on his mother's side, had been governing Farah but came to Zarang after Abu Ja'far Ahmad was murdered. Khalaf set him up in the Yaqubi palace and had his name inserted in the khutba beside his.

A year after Khalaf's ascension, a riot broke out in Zarang. Led by an 'ayyar leader and involving the city factions, it was quickly put down. Khalaf then decided to perform the Pilgrimage and left, leaving Abu'l-Husayn Tahir in charge.

Khalaf spent probably one year on the Pilgrimage before returning (965). On the way home he stopped at Baghdad, where the Buyid amir Mu'izz al-Daula gave him an audience with the Abbasid caliph al-Muti. The caliph confirmed him in his rule of Sistan and gave him a robe of honor and standard. Khalaf felt, however, that Abu'l-Husayn Tahir would not willingly give up control of Sistan upon his return, so he went to the Samanids for assistance and received an army. Returning to Sistan, he forced Abu'l-Husayn Tahir to retreat. As soon as Khalaf's army had been dismissed, however, Abu'l-Husayn Tahir returned, forcing Khalaf to seek Samanid help again. The conflict suddenly ended with the death of Abu'l Husayn Tahir in 970; his son Husayn declared his alliegence to the Samanids and left Sistan for the time being.

Conflict with Husyan b. Abu'l-Husayn Tahir
Within a year of the death of Abu'l-Husayn Tahir, his son Husayn pressed his claim to the amirate. Returning to Sistan, he soon gained control of Zarang in late 970/early 971. When Khalaf and his forces advanced to retake the capital, Husayn left the city and led his army against him. In the ensuing battle, Khalaf was victorious and several of Husayn's military commanders were killed. Khalaf retook Zarang in April of 971 and immediately began to root out Husayn's supporters in the city, causing many of them to flee to Khurasan.

Khalaf's victory proved to be only temporary, as Husayn returned in the following year. With an army that included elephants, Husayn defeated Khalaf in battle and reoccupied Zarang. A further setback for Khalaf occurred when the Samanids decided to get involved in the conflict. Khalaf had neglected to send the customary tribute to the Samanid amir at Bukhara, and Husayn took advantage of the amir's interest in the conflict by leaving Zarang and travelling to Bukhara to seek assistance (Khalaf, for his part, seems to have been more friendly to the Buyids, even including the name of the Buyid amir 'Adud al-Daula in the khutba at one point, perhaps in an attempt to receive military aid. No record of Buyid intervention in Sistan during this time appears, however). A Samanid army was sent to support Husayn; Khalaf gave battle but was defeated in August of 979.

Husayn and his Samanid allies then surrounded Zarang, which Khalaf had fled to after the battle. A siege lasting for probably three years began. Khalaf's forces attempted numerous sorties but where unable to break the siege; the Samanid and Saffarid armies battled each other several times, with neither gaining a decisive victory. The Samanid amir eventually sent a member of the Simjurid family, Abu'l-Hasan Muhammad Simjuri, to break the stalemate. With his help, a truce was achieved between Husayn and Khalaf in 983. Husayn received Zarang and much of Sistan; he entered the capital and had the name of the Samanid amir inserted in the khutba there. Khalaf left Zarang and took up residence in the nearby fortress of Taq and was to receive the revenues of the state lands and part of the revenues from Zarang.

As soon as Abu'l-Hasan left Sistan, however, Khalaf broke the truce and attempted to retake Sistan. Husayn barricaded himself in the citadel, but found that its supplies had been depleted by Khalaf's forces during the three-year siege. Realizing that he couldn't hold out for long, he contacted the Ghaznavids for help. The Ghaznavid Sebuktigin made his way to Sistan, but Khalaf managed to bribe him and eventually convince him to assist him instead. With no choice left but to surrender, Husayn sent envoys to seek peace. An agreement was reached on December 25, 983, and to celebrate the peace numerous festivities were held. Husayn died not long after.

Later Years
Khalaf was now the sole uncontested amir of Sistan for the first time in twenty years. During the next several years he gained his reputation for being a great scholar and for encouraging learning within his realm. He is also said to have made another Pilgrimage, though the date of this is uncertain. Upon the deposition of the caliph al-Ta'i in 991 by the Buyid Baha' al-Daula, he recognized the new caliph al-Qadir. This represents a break between him and the Samanids, who with their vassals the Ghaznavids continued to recognize al-Tai as caliph. In any case, it was probably al-Qadir who gave Khalif his laqab of Wali 'l-Daula.

Khalaf also conducted a campaign to retake Bust and Zamindawar. These had been virtually lost to the Saffarids during Abu'l-Husayn Tahir's rule; the local Turks were more or less independent before the Ghaznavid Sebuktigin had conquered the region in c. 978. Khalaf occupied Bust in 986 while Sebuktigin was preoccupied with his own campaign against the Hindushah. When the Ghaznavid returned, however, Khalaf was forced to surrender Bust and return the taxes he had taken from the town.

Khalaf had several sons; the two oldest, Abu Nasr and Abu'l-Fadl, died of natural causes. The third, 'Amr, spent many years at the court of the Samanid amir in Bukhara. In 988 'Amr was sent back to Sistan, where his father warmly welcomed him. A few years later, however, 'Amr took part in a rebellion against Khalaf. The rebellion was soon put down and 'Amr was jailed; he died in prison shortly after.

After the attempt to take Bust, Khalaf and Sebuktigin seem to have been on good terms. Khalaf is reported to have participated in a campaign together with Sebuktigin and the Farighunid amir of Guzgan to assist the Samanids in quelling a rebellion in Khurasan. When Sebuktigin died in 997, however, his two sons Mahmud and Ismail disputed over who should succeed him. Khalaf viewed this as an opportunity to gain territory from the Ghaznavids, and sent his fourth son Tahir to take Quhistan and Badghis in 998. Tahir was defeated in Baghdis by Mahmud's uncle Bughrachuq, although the latter was killed in the fighting.

Mahmud had no intention of letting this assault go unpunished. He led his troops into Sistan in 1000 and trapped a surprised Khalaf, who was staying at a hill resort. Khalaf, lacking an army, had to pay an indemnity, put Mahmud's name before his own on his coins and place the Ghaznavid's name in the khutba.

Khalaf's son Tahir is mentioned as having invaded Buyid Kerman in 1000, although he was ultimately unsuccessful in making any lasting gains. Soon afterwards he, like 'Amr before him, rebelled against Khalaf. The rebellion ended with Tahir's capture; he was imprisoned and died not long after, in 1002. With Tahir's death Khalaf was no longer left with any suitable heirs.

Khalaf's reign had grown increasingly unpopular over the years; his unpopularity especially grew after Tahir's rebellion. After Tahir died, the commander of his army sent a message to Mahmud of Ghazna, stating that the people of Zarang wanted him to become the ruler of Sistan. Mahmud responded by sending an advance force to secure Sistan. Khalaf resisted, barricaded himself in Taq and withstood a siege by the Ghaznavid force, so Mahmud decided to come personally in November 1002. Mahmud's army was reinforced by the townspeople of Zarang, eager to see the Saffarid defeated. By December of 1002 Khalaf was forced to surrender. He was sent to Farighunid Guzgan, wher he lived until 1006 or 1007. Rumors that Khalaf was in contact with the Karakhanids, whom Mahmud was at war with at the time, resulted in him being transferred south to Gardiz, where he died in 1009. Sistan remained under Ghaznavid rule until 1029, when the Nasrid dyansty gained control of the country.

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