User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7/ History

= History =

This section is intended to introduce history as an independent phenomenon, important for understanding the formation and evolution of various disciplines as academic. The essence of academic disciplines is shaped by history as it is contingent on the constant change of social and intellectual contexts and has unidentified in advance limits how it was developed and by who is significant to the understanding of the silences in history. Moreover, the nature of disciplines is also dependent on the connections they have with other disciplines, which themselves, are determined by history. Thus, this section also explores the potential relationships between the histories of the exemplified disciplines.

A Major Shift in the Discipline of Astronomy
One of the most important turning points in the history of Astronomy is Copernic’s findings in the 16th century, stating that humans are not at the centre of the universe but that we, including the other planets, revolve around the Sun. This theory, published in 1543, was not initially greeted with open arms. Astronomers at that time rejected Copernic’s theory as it substantially clashed with the discipline’s beliefs. Indeed, Copernic’s model entailed that the bodies, including the Earth, must be in motion for the theory to work, however, it was widely accepted during that period that the Earth was stationary. For that reason, heliocentrism was banned, and its teaching was chargeable of heresy. Nonetheless, Copernicus’ ideas initiated a drift in research, and astronomers started to build upon Copernicus’ model. For instance, Kepler contributed by defining the orbits of planets around the sun as well as Isaac Newton by defining their motion with the law of gravity. From there, the current model of the solar system entered a crisis where the surging evidence clearly defied the accepted geocentric model. Even though the astronomical community tried to prove the infeasibility of Copernic’s theory, as new evidence emerged in favour of heliocentrism, they had no choice but to revise the hitherto well-established geocentric theory. Therefore, Copernicus’ discovery had an undeniable impact on the history of Astronomy by provoking a major switch on how to perceive the discipline. Scientists no longer approached the Science of the Universe by placing the Earth at the centre of all phenomena. Rather, Astronomy became henceforward the study of all bodies where Earth does not occupy a central place which is accounted as a massive model revolution.

The Development of Dance as an Academic Discipline
The dance was seen as a primarily physical discipline up until the late 20th century, as although the first introduction of dance as a college major took place in the University of Wisconsin in 1926, at this point it was still considered part of 'physical education' and was taught mainly to women, perpetuating the typical gendered view of it as a discipline. In the 1980s, however, it started to form an additional pathway into academia.

In 1982, at the summer conference of the National Association of Teachers and Lecturers in Further and Higher Education (NATFHE), Betty Redfern presented her paper, 'Philosophical aesthetics and the study of dance as an academic discipline', in response to the increase in dance activity within the education system. The following year dance was examined for the first time in British state schools at GCSE level (then known as Ordinary Level), with emphasis on the academic sides of the discipline such as composition, appreciation and history alongside the aspect of performance- then later in 1986; dance was expanded to examination at Advanced Level. Syllabuses were created to reflect the natural overlap between dance and the social, political and environmental issues which are often explored by choreographers, composers, designers and other roles within dance production.

At this time, the first academic dance courses in higher education were also being created. One of the main proponents of this was Kurt Petermann, who in the First National Ballet Conference in East Germany in 1977, advocated for the importance of the study of dance as a discipline within the academy. 1986 also saw students admitted onto the first academic course in dance studies in Germany at the College of Performing Arts in Leipzig, alongside the creation of similar courses in the UK and USA.

The Development of Obstetrics as a Scientific Discipline
Caring for pregnant women was an activity that was exclusively feminine until the 1900s. A trained midwife would help deliver the baby at home, and it was very unusual for a doctor or surgeon to be present. It was seen as offending female modesty to make men deliver women in the 18th century. In that period, although midwifery was well established, obstetrics was not particularly regarded as a medical discipline in itself. However, it is possible to trace the subject matter and interest in the female reproductive system back to Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece with Soranus of Ephesus.

The medicalisation of childbirth happened during the end of the 18th century when the discovery of further knowledge in the physiology and anatomy of the uterus led to medical advances in obstetrics. This caused the entry of men in a previously woman-led discipline. . The establishment of lying-in hospitals has also led to obstetrics medicalisation. Accoucheurs (male-midwives) were constantly criticised to the point that some were considered perverts for undertaking midwifery. By the end of the 19th century, doctors delivering babies became widely accepted, and midwives started to become certified. Although, only a very small portion of the physicians delivering babies would call themselves obstetricians, as it was a despised medical discipline. Obstetrics finally became a valued discipline by the 20th century.

Today, maternity rights groups report a surge of interest in unassisted childbirth. More and more women opt for natural childbirth, without any use of antiseptics such as epidural, forceps, or any other medical intervention. This pattern has become more important recently as the amount of public attention concerning obstetric violence has risen. Abuse during childbirth might represent the beginning of a certain decay of the discipline as unwanted caesarean-section and episiotomies occur every day. The abusive relationship between some pregnant women and their physicist results in a lack of trust in medical assistance during labour.

The Development of Law as an Academic Discipline: the emergence of the Law Degree
The history of law as an academic discipline, or legal science, dates back to 1088, the year Irnerius, or Lucerna Juris, founded the University of Bologna, which laid the foundation for the tradition of medieval Roman law. The first scholars in the sphere of the law were called Glossators. However, all of the first medieval legal degrees were that of Doctorate level. Legal science took on a new dimension at the University of Paris, where the «Bachelor of Laws» degree was introduced. It was this system that was later endorsed into the curriculum of Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, where it continued even after its termination in continental Europe in the early 19th century. However, the nature of the teaching of legal studies at that point was mostly only theoretical, scientific, or philosophical, lacking professional training and, therefore, did not serve as proper preparation for legal practice. Since 1292, the Inns of Courts served as the only platform where one could experience training in the practice of common law. After, this function was undertaken by single practitioners. However, with an intent to improve the effectiveness of education, students turned to private apprenticeships with professional lecturers, resulting in the establishment of the institution of Inns of the Court system, which by the 17th century assumed the role of a formal university. Moreover, the importance of professional lawyers rose immensely during the Crusades as they were high in demand. This led to the issue of the act by the parliament in 1729 and the implementation of a formal apprenticeship course for lawyers into the curriculum. Although, it was not until 1846 that the need for formal legal schools had been acknowledged by the parliament, and by the end of the century attaining the L.L.B degree became the universal requirement for practicing law.

The Evolution of Criminology as a Discipline
Dating back to the 18th century, the discipline of criminology has been one that integrates knowledge of anthropology, psychology, sociology, biology, medicine, and law, to give a holistic and comprehensive understanding of the discipline. The idea was for this integration of disciplines to produce a general theory of behaviour which could then be applied to “explanations of both crime and criminal behaviour”. The approach to this discipline began in the late 18th century with 'classical' criminology which leaned heavily into the realm of philosophy whereby "punishment should be proportionate to the crime committed", an idea posited by Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. This school of thought was challenged by Cesare Lombroso who argued that a more scientific approach was needed to reflect criminal realities accurately, prompting him to introduce the new approach of positivism. The criticism of this idea was one that opened up the discipline of criminology to establish new, and better ways of understanding crime. The growth of criminology as a discipline saw the formation of what is now recognised as the British Society of Criminology (1961) which branched off from the initial foundation of the ‘Association for the Scientific Treatment of Criminals’ in London, July 1931. Further growth saw a shift in focus within the discipline to reflect a changing social climate; feminist criminology was founded in the latter half of the 20th century, alongside a development of forensic science with new technologies and, later, the study of victimology. Since its conception, criminology had developed differently in different contexts as evidenced by its different categorisations across university degrees which include its placement in the department of law, sociological studies, anthropology or medicine. Current context of technological advancement provides a potential for cyber criminology as a disciplinary branch, thus demonstrating the malleability of criminology as an academic discipline.

The Development of Psychology as a Scientific Discipline
One of the most major paradigm shifts in the history of Psychology was its development into being a quantitative, experimental, and scientific discipline in the 19th century. Previously, psychology was widely viewed as a philosophical subject by the western world heavily influenced by the works of René Descartes. The change in view was due to the work of multiple scientists who attempted to gather quantitative data and apply scientific models to their study of psychology, most notably Johann Friedrich Hebart who was influenced by metaphysics and pioneered the use of mathematical formulas in the discipline. However, the shift of psychology towards scientific methods and mathematical models did not come without debate. Franz Brentano challenged Hebart’s views and preferred to build his psychological research on experience and experimentation instead of mathematics.

The emergence of experimental psychology came alongside the establishment of Psychology as a scientific discipline. Wilhelm Wundt was considered one of the founders of experimental psychology. He opened the first laboratory dedicated to Psychology (Psychologische Institut) in Germany, 1879 and later started an academic journal (Philosophische Studien) for publication of psychological research. He also published "Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie" which was translated into several languages, including English and is considered as the first Psychology textbook ever written. These are all markers of the development of Psychology as an academic discipline. Apart from Wundt, other prominent figures contributing to the scientific development of psychology include Ernst Heinrich Weber, who introduced the first law in Psychology (Weber’s law); and Gustav Fechner, who published one of the first works of experimental psychology (“Elemente der Psychophysik”), which some consider as the beginnings of quantitative Psychology.

Development of Sociology as a Discipline
As Humans have always been fascinated by understanding the behaviour of their peers, Sociological reasoning has been used since the dawn of time (Ancient Greek philosophers such as |Aristotle, |Plato and |Socrates used it already) and predates the foundation of the discipline itself. Creation of sociology has been viewed as a reaction against speculative philosophy and folklore in the 18th-19th century. Consequently, sociology separated from moral philosophy to become a specialized discipline. In the 18th century, Age of Enlightenment philosophers like |Voltaire, |Hume, |Kant or |Mary Wollstonecraft developed general principles that could be used to explain social life.

The creation of sociology was also due to the great changes the 19th century saw, particularly the Industrial Revolution, which brought great social upheavals.

The word sociology, from Latin socius, “the companion”, and from the ancient greek suffix -logy “the study of”, is defined by |Auguste Comte as the new new way of looking at society. It is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Comte is credited for being the first one to clearly recognize sociology as a discipline; he defines a method for sociology: he studies it scientifically, as an organism. |Harriet Martineau, known for her early observer of social practices (social class, religion, suicide, government, women’s rights), introduced sociology to English-speaking scholars, translating Comte’s writings. |Max Weber established that it was nearly impossible to standard scientific methods to accurately predict the behaviour of groups as people hoped to do; to him, the influence of culture on human behaviour had to be taken into account. He founded a sociology department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich in 1919. There is still a debate on the way to predict human behaviour: is it scientifically possible or not?

Interdisciplinarity is inherent to sociology: its broad nature causes it to overlap with other social sciences such as economics, political science, geography, education, law, psychology and others.

The Feminist Paradigm Shift in Sociology
Sociology is "the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society". Even though ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle studied the relationship between individuals and society, it only emerged as an academic discipline in 1985 when the first European department of sociology was created by Emile Durkheim at the University of Bordeaux.

Sociology aims to make a comprehensive and analytical study of human societies but has paradoxically excluded women from its analysis and theories for a considerable period of time. This was the result of the idea that men's experience of society is universal and normative, which has isolated women's place in the family prism. Foundational thinkers like Emile Durkheim or Max Weber saw men as the "core constitutive category of the social/cultural".

However, the feminist movements of the 1970s rooted in the feminist paradigm shift in sociology and social sciences in general. Women's experiences were used to create new research on topics like sexual harassment (McKinnon, 1979) or lesbian communities (Krieger, 1982), resulting in a more complex and comprehensive analysis of society. The concept of gender was given a new approach through feminist articles like “Doing Gender”, published in 1987 by Candace West and Don Zimmerman. The article identified gender as a social construct, therefore challenging the sociological theories arguing that men a woman are naturally determined by their biological differences. The new theories, concepts and research developed by feminists have helped to correct gender biases in the discipline and to bridge the silences around women's experiences. This evolution was reflected across other disciplines like history, anthropology and psychology.

Can the social history of pandemic help the world to solve the contemporary Covid19 crisis?
From the Black Death (1346) to the Spanish Flu (1918), the world has gone through many forms of the pandemic which have changed the course of civilizations. These must be studied through interdisciplinary approaches such as Social history, especially with its late paradigm, shift into an ever more dynamic discipline. During the outbreak of covid, countries have endowed themselves with task forces with experts in different fields. The concept that many brains are better than one has probably never been so much put in practice as in our time. Medicine, biology, statistics, laws, politics, geography, education and history coalesce and interact to confront the problem. Historians with a knowledge of other disciplines (especially social studies, statistics, geography, politics and philosophy) have lately entered into the struggle of confronting Covid. Nina Strochlic and Riley D. Champine explain, drawing from many fields, how social distancing flattened the curve in the 1918 pandemic in American cities with a suggestion for comparison in the modern world. This kind of studies lead to compare and contrast past and present and find solutions as explained by Klaus Schwab’s article on the historical danger of neoliberism. Through an interdisciplinary historical analysis, the latter realizes that the past half-century neoliberism have produced social, economic and environmental risks. It is, according to Scwhab, time for “questioning old assumptions and developing a new paradigm.” My answer to the introductory question is yes but only from an interdisciplinary point of view we can reach a new paradigm. Social history must “contribute both to our depth of understanding and help us to navigate the breath”  of the problem we are trying to solve.

How should higher education respond to a change in knowledge?
The pace of change has increased exponentially since the beginning of recorded history; with humanity spending roughly 3,500 years in the agricultural era, and only 350 in the industrial era. In the Western world, we have developed a knowledge society that values education and innovation above manual labour and expertise. However, despite this emphasis on education, there has been little change in the way disciplines have been taught since the founding of universities centuries ago. Ron J. McBeath writes in The Impact of Paradigm Shifts on Education, universities and the education system must “understand, use and internalise such non-linear scientific principles as probability, relativity and organic systems” as “the alternative is mental stagnation”. A new paradigm is required to break the customs of polarised and linear thinking, or there is a risk of paralysis and of traditional education becoming obsolete. In the modern economy, life long education is required to maintain innovation and keep up with the rapid changes in society. The hierarchy within disciplines has also meant that new, emerging disciplines are underfunded and undervalued, and traditional, established ones take priority. To evolve with society, the education systems need to put more focus into the forward-thinking disciplines, and place greater emphasis on interdisciplinarity, as a way to gain a greater understanding of multifaceted issues and better prepare students for holistic thinking that will be required later in their careers. Using history as a basis, we can come up with projections of what may occur in the future, and parallels can be drawn between the oversupply and lack of demand from dying industries, such as coal mining, and the vast increase in those obtaining undergraduate degrees, with overall participation in higher education increasing from 3.4% in 1950, to 50.2% in 2018.

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