User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 6/Imperialism

= Imperialism = Imperialism is generally defined as the policy of extending one country's power and control over other conquered countries and regions through the process of colonization or other means such as the use of military force.

The phrases 'imperialism' and 'colonialism' are often used synonymously as they both entail supreme ruler states taking over and dominating other territories and people. Imperialism has an originally Napoleonic context, and comes from the Old French imperial meaning "having a commanding quality" from Latin imperialis "of the empire or emperor" from imperium. Contrastingly, the term colony comes from the Latin word colonus, meaning "farmer." This demonstrates how the practice of colonialism usually involves the transfer of population to a new territory, whereas the Latin term imperium generally means to command.

Colonialism may be differentiated as the process of powerful countries directly controlling less powerful countries for economic or political exploitation, thus it is a practice which is driven by the idea of colonialism.

Although closely linked, colonialism and imperialism can also be contrasted by their temporal existences. The action of colonising a new territory is more transient compared to the persistent presence of a controlling imperialist structure.

Colonialism is representative of the physical expansion of empires, categorised, for example, by the Berlin conference in 1884-85, often coined the ‘Scramble for Africa’. The increased physical ownership was motivated by elements such as nationalism and inter-country tensions.

Imperialism however, is defined by the interconnectedness of the countries and the “historical continuity” that exists between them. This refers to the necessary use of historical context to understand current events, and how countries are linked through their pasts. This temporal element explains how remnants of imperialism still hold a large residual influence on many areas of societies.

The impacts of imperialism
Although colonialism and imperialism are considered to be ideas and practices from the past, the effects can still be seen today.

Imperialism and the disciplines
The curriculum and the disciplines are often criticized as being largely shaped by imperialism, an influential factor which is often ignored or not considered. Imperialism is particularly present within the educational ideas, practice and institutions of the former Western imperial powers.

Imperialism and Anthropology
Anthropology may be noted as a discipline which both significantly shaped and was shaped by imperialism. The theory of evolutionary anthropology is rooted in the idea that all societies follow the same 'evolutionary process' from primitive to established and cultured, with cultural differences being explained by different countries being at different stages of this process. This view was used as the basis for imperialism and colonialism, as the more developed societies would be able to 'speed up' the evolutionary process for the regions which were subject to their imperialism. As such, it was both a key tool in justifying imperialism and a discipline which was shaped by imperialism as it continued to adapt so that its teachings justified this practice.

Imperialism and Literature
Imperialism assumes the intellectual superiority of the sovereign state and, as such, imperialism gave to 'imperialist literature' which describes either imperialist settings or attitudes with language that reflects the dominance and benefits of imperialism. This is distinct from 'imperialism in literature' as a genre, which is literature about imperialism or colonialism, separate from a positively- biased view point. In much British literature in particular, the impact of imperialism is subtle and mentioned only as background context in key classic texts such as 'Jane Eyre' and 'Great Expectations', both of which were written in the 19th century under the presence of British colonial expansion. Literature written by those who explored as part of the colonialism practices to enforce imperialism introduced a type of literature which took the forms of manuscripts, letters and diaries which usually served to reinforce the racial prejudices used to justify imperialism (although not always). Beyond these texts which were produced in observation of imperialism, there were also pieces of literature written to criticize and question the act of imperialism with many texts such as H G Well's 'The War of the Worlds' offering either direct or indirect implication that Britain's imperialistic actions could be dangerous.

Imperialism and Architecture
Architecture driven and shaped by imperialist ideals can be seen throughout the world, with a particular area of interest being countries in the former British Empire. India is one of the most obvious targets, with New Delhi a great example. At the beginning of the twentieth century, British architects named Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker headed to Delhi with a great plan for the building of the city. With street names such as 'Kings Way', and Greek and Roman architectural ideas showcased throughout, New Delhi is a city that epitomises architectural imperialism. Lutyens was hugely certain that the architecture of imperialism was best demonstrated in the Roman and Greek empires, and chose to copy this style, resisting incorporating local vernacular into any of his designs. This resistance is causing tension in the younger Indian generation, who see the domes as "arrogant", and symbols of alien imperial rule. With the city designed as a "baroque garden city" by Lutyens and Baker, with the urban plan meticulously drawn to allow for motor cars, telephones, printing presses and the cinema, the city represented a Western industrial state.

New Delhi is only one example of Imperialist architecture, with many more cities affected: Brazil, for example, is full of Portuguese colonialist architecture, with New Orleans demonstrative of French influence. Interestingly, these two places promote their colonial influence, with Portuguese-designed buildings important sightseeing destinations in Brazil. In this way, the more positive side of imperialist architecture can be noted: it is now used to bring tourists and money to cities.

Having said this, it is clear that architectural imperialism has had a negative impact as well as positive, with current architectural trends demonstrating this. Around the world, Western architects, such as Foster + Partners and Zaha Hadid Architects, continue to build in their "British", Western style. The architectural designs put forward ahead of the 2008 Summer Olympics caused great controversy, as it was felt that British architects were "invading" Beijing; Prince Charles himself was one of the adamant opposers to the designs, attempting to save the city's Hutongs in an act of preservation. In this way, the current architectural movement is clear: Western, wealthy architects are migrating to countries and cultures completely different from our own, and using developing cities as architectural playgrounds. In this way, many of the world's new cities are losing their national identities.

Imperialism and Geography
Geography has been linked to imperialism for centuries. Geographical knowledge was necessary for European expansionists to form maps of different areas, and to form human settlements in appropriate areas. Additionally, imperialism provided some of the original geographical knowledge of the earth about, for example, land mass, seas, and fauna. This knowledge has helped in the development of modern geography as a discipline.

Imperialism and medicine
Race based medicine is an example of imperialism in medicine. The spirometer measures the lung function of a person, and it has a race adjustment: doctors are advised to adjust it based on race, on the assumption that black people have a lower lung capacity than white people. Dr Samuel Cartwright used this as a justification for forced labour and slavery in the mid 18th century. He said that being a slave would help develop lung capacity. And this advice is still to be used today.

Imperialism and the curriculum
A curriculum is the knowledge and skill-set that are chosen to be passed on to the next generation during their education. It embodies the values of a culture, and is a way for a government to define the ideologies and knowledge they want passed on. A study on the curriculum in schools in classical colonial regions of Africa identified a tendency for the curriculum to be based off of 'non-elite elementary schools in France.' Not only does this suggest the French views of education had a significant influence on the schooling system in colonial regions of Africa, it also hints at a hierarchical nature of education and knowledge. The students received an education comprised of knowledge deemed as being of lower status, as a means of guiding them towards predetermined jobs of lower status. Although curricula tend to evolve and be updated with time, certain values and knowledge will remain ingrained. It is therefore important to be aware of the role imperialism had in shaping the curriculum in schools across the world, and the influence this will have had on the ideologies and worldviews that arose and were enforced.

Language in education
Another example of the impact of imperialism on education can be found in the use of metropolitan languages for education in less-powerful countries. This is when languages of more 'powerful' or developed nations are used for instruction in other nations. While some would argue this provides an advantage to the citizens of the developing country, others claim it only provides the more powerful nations with a firmer grip on the developing nation, and a means to utilize and exploit them. Throughout history, the use of metropolitan languages in education tends to reconcile the the dominant and inferior cultures of a society. However, it is arguable whether this serves as a beneficial merger, or if it harmfully eradicates the culture of the developing society.

Cultural Imperialism
Cultural imperialism is a commonly debated topic largely for its indistinct definition. On one hand it may be viewed as forced acculturation, in a threatening sense, to cultural identity from a more dominant nation over one less powerful. However, it may also be interpreted as a voluntary concept of embracing a foreign culture. In this way, there is complexity to the topic and its validity is undermined which therefore leads towards much debate. The term banal imperialism has been coined by experts to distinguish the hypothetical idea of passive culture absorption. For example, through the importation of foreign goods and services. This argues there is more impact than merely consumerism to the definition. One such way this view observes the concept, is to acknowledge the increasing expansion and control of goods we see from America and the criticism of its control. Although to classify this as cultural imperialism would require a dissemination of American principles into these countries in addition to spreading goods and services. It is in this light that we recognise how such corporate and cultural influences, such as that of America, have been seen to subsequently dismantle cultural minorities. Furthermore, this dismantlement stimulates the decline in our ability to preserve cultural evolution and our capacity to create unique methods of solving issues and thus maintain cultural diversity in response to environmental pressures. .

Dividing the World vs Educating the World
Some of the main aims of imperialism was to gain a knowledge of the parts of the world that were unknown to western society and to develop the principles of schooling around the world. However in the process of educating and understanding these parts of the world consciously or not, it has also been divided into the 'primitive' east and the 'civilised' east. This has shaped a tendency to define our identity in terms of where we were born rather than who we are and what we've accomplished and turned the conception of learning into the acquisition of what and who one was not.

American Imperialism
American imperialism is the economic, military, and cultural influence of the United States on other countries. Such influence often goes hand in hand with expansion into foreign territories. It experienced its pinnacle from the late 1800s through the years following World War II. During this “Age of Imperialism,” the United States exerted political, social, and economic control over countries such as the Philippines, Cuba, Germany, Austria, Korea, and Japan. One of the most notable examples of American imperialism in this age was the annexation of Hawaii in 1898, which allowed the United States to gain possession and control of all ports, buildings, harbors, military equipment, and public property that had formally belonged to the Government of the Hawaiian Islands.

Modern Imperialism

Even nowadays one must be aware of what has imperialistic motivations. For foreign people trying to help implement a system, architecture, or company in a different culture it is vital to second guess the motivation and be aware of the implications of this action on the local population, hence it is vital to communicate with the residents to see if this change is a collaborative and positive movement rather than the imposition of one from one standpoint to the other. ==Notes==