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An Overview of Ethics

Ethics is a set of beliefs about right and wrong behavior within a society.Every society forms a set of rules that establishes the boundaries of generally accepted behavior. These rules are often expressed in statements about how people should behave, and the individual rules fit together to form the moral code by which a society lives. Ethical behavior conforms to generally accepted norms- many of which of which are almost universal.

Ethics for IT Professionals

IT workers are not legally classified as professionals, but are considered part of the professional services industry which is experiencing immense changes that impact how members of this industry must think and behave successful. IT workers typically become involved in many different relationships, including those with employer, clients, suppliers,other professionals, IT users, and society. IT workers and employees have critical, multifaceted relationship that requires ongoing efforts by both parties to keep it strong. An IT worker and an employer typically agree on fundamental aspects of this relationship before the worker accepts an employment offer. These issues may include job title, general performance expectations, specific work responsibilities, drug-testing requirements, dress code,location of employment, salary, work hours, and company benefits.

Computer and Internet Crime

Confidential business data and private customer and employee information must be safe-guarded, and systems must be protected against malicious acts of theft or disruption. There are numerous types of computer attacks, with new varieties being invented all the time. Some of the more common attacks, including the virus, worm, Trojan horse, distributed denial-of-service, rootkit, spam, phishing, spear-phishing, smishing, and vishing. Some IT security experts warn that it will not be long before we see exploits targeted at smartphones and other devices to steal users' data or turn them into remote-controlled bots. Computer virus has become an umbrella turn for many types of malicious code. A virus is a piece of programming code, usually disguised as something else, that causes a computer to behave in an unexpected and usually in an undesirable manner. A worm is harmful program that resides in the active memory of the computer and duplicates itself. Worms differ from the virus in that they can propagate without human interventions, sending copies of themselves to another computer by email or internet relay chat (IRC). A Trojan horse is a program in which malicious code is hidden inside seemingly harmless program. The programs' harmful payload might be designed to enable the hacker to destroy hard drives, corrupt files, control the computer remotely, launch attacks against other computers, steal passwords, or social security numbers, or spy on users by recording keystrokes and transmitting them to a server operated by a third party. There are just too many ways for hackers to obtain personal information. No organization can ever be completely secured from attacks. The key is to implement a layered security solution to make computers break-ins so difficult that an attacker eventually gives up.

Privacy

A broad definition of the right of privacy "the right to be left alone- the most comprehensive of rights, and the right most valued by a free people." Information of privacy is the combination of communications privacy and data privacy. Although a number of independent laws and acts have been implemented over time, no single, overarching national data privacy policy has been developed in the United States. Individuals must reveal much of their personal financial data in order to take advantage of the wide range of financial products and services available, including credit cards, checking and savings accounts, loans, payroll direct deposit, and brokerage accounts. The Fair Credit Reporting Act of 1970 regulates the operations credit-reporting bureaus, including how they collect, store, and use credit information. The act enforced by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission is designed to ensure the accuracy, fairness, and privacy of information gathered by the credit-reporting companies and to check those systems that gather and sell information about people. There are several other acts that protects people personal information such as Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), and Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA). The use of information technology in business requires balancing the needs of those who use the information that is collected against the rights and desires of the people whose information is being used.

Freedom of Expression

The right to freedom of expression is one of the most important rights for free people everywhere. The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was adopted to guarantee this right and others. Information technology has provided amazing new ways for people to communicate with others around the world, but with these new methods come new responsibilities and new ethical dilemmas. Although there are clear and convincing arguments to support freedom of speech online, the issue is complicated by the ease with which children can access the Internet. In October 1998, the Child Online Protection Act (COPA) was signed into law. COPA states that "whoever knowingly and with knowledge of the character of the material, and interstate or foreign commerce by means of the World Wide Web, makes any communication for commercial purposes that is available to any minor and that includes any material that is harmful to minors shall be fined no more than $50,000, imprisoned not more than 6 months or both." Anonymous expression is the expression of opinions by people who do not reveal their identity. the freedom to express an opinion with out fair of reprisal is an important right of a democratic society. Maintaining anonymity on the internet is important to some computer users. They might be seeking help in an online support group, reporting online defects about a manufacturer's goods or services, taking part in frank discussion of sensitive topics, expressing a minority or antigovernment opinion in a hostile political environment, or participating in chat rooms. The internet enables a worldwide exchange of news, ideas, opinions, rumors, and information. Its board accessibility, open discussion anonymity make it a powerful communication medium. People must often make ethical decision about how to use such remarkable freedom and power.

Intellectual Property

Intellectual property is a term used to describe works of the mind - such as arts, books, films, formulas, inventions, music, and processes - that are distinct and owned or created by a single person or group. Intellectual property is protected through copyright, patent, and trade secret laws. Copyright laws protect authored works, such as art, books, film, and music; patent law protects inventions; and trade secret law helps safeguard information that is critical to organization and success. A copyright is the exclusive right to distribute, display, perform, or reproduce an original work an copies or to prepare derivative works based on the work. Copyright protection is granted to the creators of "original works of authorship in any tangible medium of expression, now known or later developed, from which they can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine or device." Copyright infringement is a violation of the rights secured by the owner of a copyright. Infringement occurs when someone copies a substantial and material part of another's copyrighted work without permission. A patent is a grant of property right issued by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to an inventor. A patent permits its owner to exclude the public from making, using, or selling a protected invention, and it allows for legal action against violators.

Software Development

High-quality software systems are easy to learn and use because they perform quickly and efficiently; they meet their users' needs; and they operate safely and reliable so that system downtime is kept to a minimum. Such software has long been required to support the fields of air traffic control, nuclear power, automobile safety, healthcare, military, and defense, and space exploration. A software defect is any error that, if not removed, could cause a software system to fail to meet its users' needs. The impact of these defects can be trivial; for example, a computerized sensor in a refrigerator's ice cube maker might fail to recognize that the tray is full and continue to make ice. Software quality is the degree to which a software product meets the needs of its users. Quality management focuses on the finding, measuring, and refining the quality of the development process and the products developed during its various stages. These products- including statements of requirements, flow charts, and user documentation- are known as deliverables. A business information system is a set of interrelated components- including hardware, software, databases, networks, people, and procedures- that collects and processes data and disseminates the output. A common type of business system is one that captures and records business transactions. Another type of business information system is the decision support system (DSS), which is used to improve decision making in a variety of industries. A DSS can be used to develop accurate forecasts of customer demand, recommended stocks and bonds for an investment portfolio, or schedule shift workers in such a way as to minimize cost while meeting customer service goals. Many software companies have adopted a software development methodology- a standard, proven work process that enables systems analysts, programmers, project managers, and others to make controlled and orderly progress in developing high-quality software.

The Impact of Information Technology on Productivity and Quality of Life

In the United States and in most developed countries, the standard of living has been improving over time. Productivity is defined as the amount of output produced per unit of input, and it is measured in many different ways. When people talk about standard of living, they are often referring to a level of material comfort measured by the goods, services, and luxuries available to a person, group, or nation-factors beyond the GDP-based measurement of standard of living. Another indicator of standard of living is the availability of technology. The digital divide is a term used to describe the gulf between those who do and those who don't have access to modern information and communications technology such as cell phones, personal computers, and the internet. The Education Rate (E-Rate) Program was created through the Telecommunications Act of 1996. The full name of the program is The Schools and Libraries Program of the Universal Service Fund. E-Rate helps schools and libraries obtain broadband Internet services to advance the ability of educational and informational resources. The nonprofit organization One Laptop per Child (OLPC) has a goal of providing children around the world with low-cost laptop computers to aid in their education. The rapidly rising cost of healthcare is one of the twenty-first century's major challenges. U.S. healthcare spending is expected to increase an average 6.3% a year (a rate much higher than overall inflation) and grow from $2.6 trillion $4.6 trillion by 2019 according to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. To gain control over health care costs, patients will need to gain a much greater awareness of medical costs, and new technology costs will need to be managed more carefully.

Social Networking

A social networking Web site is a site that creates an online community of Internet users that enables members to break down barriers created by time, distance, and cultural differences. Social networking Websites allow people to interact with others online by sharing opinion, insights, information, interests, and experiences. Although social networking Web sites are primarily used for nonbusiness purposes, a number of forward-thinking organizations are employing this technology to advertise, assess job candidates, and sell products. There is an increase in the number of business-oriented social networking sites designed to encourage and support relationships with consumers, clients, potential employees, suppliers, and business partners around the world. Social network advertising involved the use of social networks to communicate and promote the benefits of products and services. Social network advertising has become big business in the United States. Organization are increasingly looking to new forms of advertising to reach their target markets. Two significant advantages in social networking advertising over more traditional advertising media (e.g., radio, TV, and newspapers) are as follows: (1) advertisers can create an opportunity to generate a conversation with viewers of the ad, and (2) ads can be targeted to reach people with the desired demographic characteristics. Cyberbullying is the harassment, torment, humiliation, or threatening of one minor by another minor or group of minors via the Internet or cell phone. Cyberbullying has sometimes become so intense that some children have committed suicide as a result. Cyberstalking is threatening behavior or unwanted advances directed at an adult using the Internet or other forms of online and electronic communications; it is the adult version of cyber bullying. Online stalking can be a serious problem for victims, terrifying them and causing mental anguish.

Ethics of IT Organizations

According to the Computing Research Association, the number of undergraduate degrees awarded in computer science and computer engineering at doctoral-granting computer science departments decreased dramatically from around 21,000 in 2004 to less than 10,000 in 2009. The Bureau of Labor Statistics defines contingent work as a job situation in which an individual does not have an explicit or implicit contract for long-term employment. a firm is likely to use contingent IT workers if it experiences pronounced fluctuations in its technical staffing needs. Workers are often hired on a contingent basis as consultants on an organizational restructuring project, as technical experts on a product development team, as a supplemental staff for many other short-term projects, such as the design and installation of new information systems. An H-1B visa is a temporary work visa granted by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) for people who work in the specialty occupations- jobs that require at least a 4-year bachelor's degree in a specific field, or equivalent experience. Outsourcing is another approach to meeting staffing needs. Outsourcing is long-term business arrangement in which a company contracts for services which an outside organization that has expertise in providing a specific function. Offshore outsourcing is a form of outsourcing in which the services are provided by an organization whose employees are in a foreign country. Any work done at a relatively high cost in the United States may become a candidate for offshore outsourcing- not just IT work. However, IT professionals in particular can do much of their work anywhere- on a company's premises or thousands of miles away in a foreign country. Like the subject of contingent workers, whistle-blowing is a significant topic in any discussion of ethics in IT. A whistle-blower usually has personal knowledge of what is happening inside the offending organization because of his or her role as an employee of the organization. Computer companies looking to manufacture green computers are challenged to produce computers that use less electricity, include fewer hazardous materials that may harm people or pollute the environment, and contain a high percentage of reusable or recyclable material. These companies should also provide programs to help consumers dispose of their products in an environmentally safe manner at the end of their useful life.