Switching from macOS to Linux/System Preferences (Desktop)

The following is a list of some of Apple's System Preference Panes and where you will be able to find the same settings in Ubuntu Desktop. Most of them are self explanatory and are available in Ubuntu Desktop "System Settings" application, which is found in the Dock or in the Gear menu at the top right of the screen.

Desktop Background
"System Settings", "Appearance" to set the background image.

Screensaver
"System Settings", "Brightness & Lock" to set the lock time and password requirements.

Ubuntu's ships with only one basic screensaver that locks the screen. If you want a more screensaver follow these screensaver installation instructions.

Resolution
"System Settings", "Display" to change resolution. The big difference between this and Mac is that you have to click "Apply" to actually change the resolution. This won't be obvious if you install Ubuntu in a VM that has a very small screen size (800 x 600) because you won't be able to see the "Apply" button.

Night Shift
Read about it here.

Dock
The Ubuntu Dock is called the Launcher.

"System Settings", "Appearance", "Look" tab allows you set it's size. The "Behavior" tab allows you to Auto-hide the Launcher. There are other ways to configure the Launcher appearance.

Sleep display
"System Settings", "Brightness & Lock" to set the lock time.

Sleep computer
"System Settings", "Power" allows you to suspend the computer, but I'm not sure what that means.

Sleep hard drives
I don't see settings for this.

Wake for Network Access
Read about it here.

Default Web browser
"System Settings", "Details" pane, "Default Applications" tab allows you to change the default web browser, email, calendar, music, video, and photo applications.

Key Repeat & Delay Until Repeat
"System Settings", "Keyboard"

Shortcuts
"System Settings", "Keyboard"

Input Sources
"System Settings", "Text Entry"

Scroll Direction
This seems to be a grey area. You can read about it here and here

Tracking Speed
"System Settings", "Mouse & Trackpad"

Printers & Scanners
"System Settings", "Printers".

For scanners, see this, this or this.

Screensaver Password
"System Settings", "Brightness & Lock"