Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography

= Pronunciation =

Consonant and Glides

 * The following IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) chart shows the consonant phonemes (minimal meaningful sounds) and semi-consonant (glide) phonemes in Mirad:


 * {| class="IPA wikitable" style="text-align:center" style="background:lightyellow"

! !! !! Labial !! Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal ! colspan="2" | Nasal ! rowspan="2" | Plosive ! voiced ! unvoiced ! rowspan="2" | Affricate ! voiced ! unvoiced ! rowspan="2" | Fricative ! voiced ! unvoiced ! colspan="2" | Approximate ! colspan="2" | Flap
 * + Consonant Phonemes
 * /m/ || /n/ || || ||
 * /b/ || /d/ || || /g/ ||
 * /p/ || /t/ || || /k/ ||
 * || || /t͡ʃ/ || ||
 * /v/ || /z/ || /ʒ/ || ||
 * /f/ || /s/ || /ʃ/ || || /h/
 * || /l/ || /j/ || /w/ ||
 * || /ɽ/ || || ||
 * }
 * The phonemes /r/ and /l/ are consonant liquids and behave in a special way in forming words in Mirad.


 * The approximate phonemes /j/ and /w/ are semi-consonantal glides and are used to form diphthongs (complex vowels). See Vowels.


 * The following chart shows the correspondence of the consonants and glides with their phonemic values:


 * {| class="IPA wikitable" style="text-align:center" style="background:lightyellow"

! PHONEME !! /b/ !! /t͡ʃ/ !! /d/ !! /f/ !! /g/ !! /h/ !! /ʒ/ !! /k/ !! /l/ !! /m/ !! /n/ !! /p/ !! /ɽ/ !! /s/ !! /t/ !! /v/ !! /w/ !! /ʃ/ !! /j/ !! /z/
 * + Consonant Graphemes and Phonemes
 * GRAPHEME || b || c || d || f || g || h || j || k || l || m || n || p || r || s || t || v ||style="background:yellow"| w || x ||style="background:yellow"| y || z
 * GRAPHEME || b || c || d || f || g || h || j || k || l || m || n || p || r || s || t || v ||style="background:yellow"| w || x ||style="background:yellow"| y || z
 * }


 * In Mirad, every consonant has a one-to-one correspondence with a single phoneme (ideal sound). Mirad does not use digraphs like sh or ph to represent consonant sounds.  There are no double consonants, although sometimes a consonant will come together with the same consonant in the same word, but not the same syllable.  There are no silent consonants.  Also, there are no letters in "native" Mirad with diacritical marks like &eacute; or &ntilde;.


 * That said, the y and w, while functioning as consonants in words borrowed from other languages, such as Yohan (Johann) and wan (wan), they are, in Mirad native words, used as semi-consonantal glides to alter the pronunciation of vowels. See Pronunciation of Vowels.

Pronunciation Compared to English

 * Here are the letters that are pronounced somewhat differently from English:


 * The letter x is pronounced like an sh in English.
 * The letter h is never silent. It is used to form the determiners in Mirad and is also used to simulate foreign sounds like the ch in Yiddish la ch ayim (to life!), or German Ba ch .
 * The letter j is pronounced like the zh in Russian  Zh ivago or the ge in English mira ge .


 * The letter s is always unvoiced as English ss and never sounds like a z.


 * The letter g is always a hard sound as in English  g ap, not as in English wa g e.


 * The letter c is used mostly in foreign words and represents the unvoiced affricate sound t͡ʃ like the ch in English  ch ur ch . For example, the Mirad name for  Ch ina is  C inam.  Some chemical names and metric units use the letter c, in which case, it is also pronounced like the ch in English church.


 * The unvoiced plosives p, t, and k are pronounced without the puff of breath that sometimes follows them in their English counterparts. The corresponding consonants in French are exact equivalents.


 * The consonant r should be a flap or trill like the r in Brit. Eng. ve r y or the single r in Spanish pe r o.


 * The consonants in the Mirad alphabet correspond one-to-one with phonemes. There are no cases of consonant sounds being represented in native words by digraphs as in English ph, sh, ch, or th.  For example, the sh sound in English is represented by x in Mirad.


 * Here is a chart showing the pronunciation of Mirad consonants:

Note: If you see a blank here instead of an IPA symbol, it probably means that the font you are using to display characters in your browser does not support these characters.

Vowels

 * Mirad vowels are divided into simple and complex vowels. The simple vowels are single-letter, while the complex vowels have one or more glides.

Simple Vowels
The graphemes (alphabetic letters) in Mirad used to represent the simple vowel phonemes (minimal meaningful sounds) are as follows:
 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" style="background:lightyellow"

! GRAPHEME !! a !! e !! i !! o !! u
 * + Vowel Graphemes and Phonemes
 * PHONEME || /a/ || /e/ || /i/ || /o/ || /u/
 * }
 * }


 * The simple vowels are pronounced as they are in many European Latin-based languages. The table below gives their phonetic values and some close examples in Spanish and French, and not-so-close examples in English.


 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow"

! VOWEL !! IPA1 !! SPANISH !! FRENCH !! ENGLISH APPROXIMATION
 * + Simple Vowels
 * a || [a] || m a no || à [[File:fr-à.ogg]] || f a ther
 * e || [e] || h e cho || et [[File:fr-et.ogg]] || d ay  2
 * i || [i] || s i || s i [[File:fr-si.ogg]] || s ee 2
 * o || [o] || n o || de l' eau [[File:fr-eau.ogg]] || s o 3
 * u || [u] || t u || ou [[File:fr-ou.ogg]] || t oo 3
 * }
 * o || [o] || n o || de l' eau [[File:fr-eau.ogg]] || s o 3
 * u || [u] || t u || ou [[File:fr-ou.ogg]] || t oo 3
 * }
 * u || [u] || t u || ou [[File:fr-ou.ogg]] || t oo 3
 * }

Complex Vowels

 * Complex vowels are those preceded or followed by the glides y or w. This chart shows the possible complex vowels and their pronunciations:


 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow"

! GLIDED VOWELS !! IPA1 !! PRONUNCIATION ! colspan=3 | PRE-Y-GLIDED VOWELS ! colspan=3 | PRE-W-GLIDED VOWELS ! colspan=3 | POST-Y-GLIDED ! colspan=3 | POST-W-GLIDED ! colspan=3 | CIRCUM-Y-GLIDED ! colspan=3 | PRE-W-POST-Y-GLIDED
 * + Glided Vowel Patterns
 * ya || [ja] || Eng. y ach t, Fr.  hia cinthe (there is) [[File:en-us-yacht.ogg]]
 * ye || [je] || Eng.  ye t, Fr. grill é  (grilled) [[File:fr-grillé.ogg]]
 * yi || [ji] || Eng.  yea st*, Fr. bou illi 
 * yo || [jo] || Eng.  yo ke*, Fr. ma illot [[File:fr-maillot.ogg]]
 * yu || [ju] || Eng.  you *, Fr. p iou-piou 
 * yi || [ji] || Eng.  yea st*, Fr. bou illi 
 * yo || [jo] || Eng.  yo ke*, Fr. ma illot [[File:fr-maillot.ogg]]
 * yu || [ju] || Eng.  you *, Fr. p iou-piou 
 * yu || [ju] || Eng.  you *, Fr. p iou-piou 
 * yu || [ju] || Eng.  you *, Fr. p iou-piou 
 * wa || [wa] || Eng. w a ter, Fr. g oua che (poster paint) [[File:en-us-water.ogg]]
 * we || [we] || Eng. w e t, Fr.  ouais  (yes)
 * wi || [wi] || Eng. w ee 2, Fr.  oui  (yes) [[File:Fr-oui.ogg]]
 * wo || [wo] || Eng. w o ke2
 * wu || [wu] || Eng. w oo 2
 * wi || [wi] || Eng. w ee 2, Fr.  oui  (yes) [[File:Fr-oui.ogg]]
 * wo || [wo] || Eng. w o ke2
 * wu || [wu] || Eng. w oo 2
 * wu || [wu] || Eng. w oo 2
 * wu || [wu] || Eng. w oo 2
 * ay || [aɪ] || Eng. s igh t, Sp. h ay  (there is) [[File:en-us-I.ogg]]
 * ey || [eɪ] || Eng. d ay , Sp. r ey  (king) [[File:en-us-day.ogg]]
 * iy || [iɪ] || Eng. s ee , Fr. b ille  (marble) [[File:en-us-see.ogg]]
 * oy || [oɪ] || Eng. b oy , Sp. h oy  (today) [[File:en-us-boy.ogg]]
 * uy || [uɪ] || Eng. g ooey , Sp. m uy  (very) [[File:en-us-gooey.ogg]]
 * iy || [iɪ] || Eng. s ee , Fr. b ille  (marble) [[File:en-us-see.ogg]]
 * oy || [oɪ] || Eng. b oy , Sp. h oy  (today) [[File:en-us-boy.ogg]]
 * uy || [uɪ] || Eng. g ooey , Sp. m uy  (very) [[File:en-us-gooey.ogg]]
 * uy || [uɪ] || Eng. g ooey , Sp. m uy  (very) [[File:en-us-gooey.ogg]]
 * uy || [uɪ] || Eng. g ooey , Sp. m uy  (very) [[File:en-us-gooey.ogg]]
 * aw || [ɔ] || Eng.  awe  [[File:en-us-awe.ogg]]
 * ew || [eʊ] || Br. Eng. b eau , colloq. Eng. T ell me! [[File:en-us-tell.ogg]]
 * iw || [iʊ] || Eng.  eew! (sound of disgust), Du. ni ew [[File:Nl-nieuw.ogg]] (new)
 * ow || [oʊ] || Eng. kn ow , f oe [[File:en-us-know.ogg]]
 * uw || [uʊ] || Eng. g oo  [[File:en-us-goo.ogg]]
 * iw || [iʊ] || Eng.  eew! (sound of disgust), Du. ni ew [[File:Nl-nieuw.ogg]] (new)
 * ow || [oʊ] || Eng. kn ow , f oe [[File:en-us-know.ogg]]
 * uw || [uʊ] || Eng. g oo  [[File:en-us-goo.ogg]]
 * uw || [uʊ] || Eng. g oo  [[File:en-us-goo.ogg]]
 * uw || [uʊ] || Eng. g oo  [[File:en-us-goo.ogg]]
 * yay || [jaɪ] || Eng. y i kes [[File:en-us-yikes.ogg]]
 * yey || [jeɪ] || Eng. y ea ! [[File:en-us-yay.ogg]]
 * yiy || [jiɪ] || Eng. y ee sh! (sound of disgust) [[File:en-us-ye.ogg]]
 * yoy || [joɪ] || Eng. y oi nk ( = New Jyoizy )
 * yuy || [juɪ] || Eng. H ughie  [[File:EN-AU_ck1_Hughie.ogg]]
 * yiy || [jiɪ] || Eng. y ee sh! (sound of disgust) [[File:en-us-ye.ogg]]
 * yoy || [joɪ] || Eng. y oi nk ( = New Jyoizy )
 * yuy || [juɪ] || Eng. H ughie  [[File:EN-AU_ck1_Hughie.ogg]]
 * yuy || [juɪ] || Eng. H ughie  [[File:EN-AU_ck1_Hughie.ogg]]
 * yuy || [juɪ] || Eng. H ughie  [[File:EN-AU_ck1_Hughie.ogg]]
 * way || [waɪ] || Eng.  wi se, Fr.  ouailles  (flock) [[File:en-us-wise.ogg]]
 * wey || [weɪ] || Eng.  way  [[File:en-us-way.ogg]]
 * wiy || [wiɪ] || Eng.  wee ! (sound of fun) [[File:en-us-we.ogg]]
 * woy || [woɪ] || Eng.  woy  (rhymes with boy)
 * wuy || [wuɪ] || Eng.  wooi sh (rhymes with gooey)
 * }
 * In Mirad, the above complex vowels are considered single glided vowels for the purposes of grammar, syllabification, and stress.
 * woy || [woɪ] || Eng.  woy  (rhymes with boy)
 * wuy || [wuɪ] || Eng.  wooi sh (rhymes with gooey)
 * }
 * In Mirad, the above complex vowels are considered single glided vowels for the purposes of grammar, syllabification, and stress.
 * In Mirad, the above complex vowels are considered single glided vowels for the purposes of grammar, syllabification, and stress.


 * Note 1: International Phonetic Alphabet. See chart and click on sounds at [].
 * Note 2: Without the typical y-glide at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe.
 * Note 3: Without the typical w-glide at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe.

= Syllabification =


 * Every syllable in Mirad contains one and only one vowel. A y when final or followed by a consonant is used to post-y-glide or diphthongize the previous vowel and is therefore considered part of the syllable in which that vowel is the nucleus (see case 2, below).  Similarly, the liquids r and l, when final or followed by a consonant are considered to be a part of the syllable where the preceding vowel is the nucleus (see case 4, below).  Two vowels in a row form two syllabic nuclei (see cases 3, 6, and 7, below).  Two non-glide consonants (i.e. not y or w, are split between them (see case 8).  How syllables are divided is important for determining where the stress accent goes in a word (see /Stress/, below).


 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow"

! CASE !! EXAMPLE !! SYLLABIFIED
 * + Syllabification
 * 1 || ama.....hot || a-ma
 * 2 || ayma.....warm || ay-ma
 * 3 || aymsea.....warming up || aym-se-a
 * 4 || prexwa....exploded || pre-xwa
 * 5 || upayo....will have come || u-pa-yo
 * 6 || vyaa....true || vya-a
 * 7 || vyaay....truly || vya-ay
 * 8 || vay....indeed || vay
 * 9 || tambwa....settled || tam-bwa
 * }
 * 6 || vyaa....true || vya-a
 * 7 || vyaay....truly || vya-ay
 * 8 || vay....indeed || vay
 * 9 || tambwa....settled || tam-bwa
 * }
 * 8 || vay....indeed || vay
 * 9 || tambwa....settled || tam-bwa
 * }
 * }

= Phonotactics =


 * For the purpose of this section:
 * G stands for the glides y or w.
 * L stands for the liquids r and l.
 * C stands for consonants other than glides or liquids.
 * V stands for single vowels.
 * + means 1 to 3 of the foregoing letter
 * Parentheses indicate that a letter is optional.
 * Bracketing indicates a choice of letters or patterns.


 * Syllables in Mirad are shaped according to the following pattern constraints:


 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow"

! ALLOWABLE SYLLABIC PATTERNS !! EXAMPLES
 * + Phonotactics
 * (C)[LG]V+(G)(L)(C) || o, ay, xwa, gyo, gra, toyb, glays, alp, mayr, hyos, va, xwa, gyo, gla, gre, vyaa, lo, wa, yu
 * ...V(G)m[psx] || m amp, y omx 
 * ...V(G)n[kgsx] || y ank, y ons , anx , Eng lam, eynx
 * }
 * ...V(G)n[kgsx] || y ank, y ons , anx , Eng lam, eynx
 * }
 * }


 * Two non-glide/liquid consonants cannot appear together in the same syllable, except in foreign-imported words.
 * Two glides or liquids cannot come together in one syllable except in foreign-imported words.

= Stress =


 * Stress in Mirad is not marked and is not phonemic, i.e. not semantically distinctive. However, in all words of more than one syllable, the stress is applied to the last, non-final vowel, included complex (i.e. glided) vowels. The following chart gives some examples:


 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow"

! Mirad Word !! With Stress and Syllabification Marked
 * + Stress
 * teja....vital ||  t e -ja
 * igay....quickly ||  i -gay*
 * Mirad....Mirad || Mi- r a d 
 * booka....tired || bo- o -ka
 * bookan....fatigue || bo-o- k a n 
 * tejea....alive || te- je -a
 * oyse....lacks ||  oy -se
 * }
 * * Here ay is a post-y-glided complex vowel, and final, so it is not stressed.
 * bookan....fatigue || bo-o- k a n 
 * tejea....alive || te- je -a
 * oyse....lacks ||  oy -se
 * }
 * * Here ay is a post-y-glided complex vowel, and final, so it is not stressed.
 * }
 * * Here ay is a post-y-glided complex vowel, and final, so it is not stressed.

= Capitalization =


 * Words in Mirad are capitalized as in English, that is:


 * The first word of a sentence is capitalized.
 * Proper nouns, including names of places and persons, inhabitants of those places, and the languages spoken there, are capitalized. (This contrasts with usage in most European languages.)
 * All the letters of an acronym are upper case.


 * The following chart illustrates this:


 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow"

! Mirad !! English
 * + Capitalization
 * Amerikam || America
 * Amerikama || American
 * Amerikat || an American
 * Amerikad || American English
 * Ivan || Ivan
 * Dropek ay Poos || War and Peace
 * At Mirade. || I speak Mirad.
 * Hyat be ha mir Mirado glojo. || Everyone in the world will speak Mirad soon.
 * Yat tambeseya Boston. || We were living in Boston.
 * His se Fransa vafil. || This is a French wine.
 * Ha Anxwa Doobi gey dyunuwe ha AD. || The United Nations is also called the UN.
 * Ha AD || The UN
 * }
 * At Mirade. || I speak Mirad.
 * Hyat be ha mir Mirado glojo. || Everyone in the world will speak Mirad soon.
 * Yat tambeseya Boston. || We were living in Boston.
 * His se Fransa vafil. || This is a French wine.
 * Ha Anxwa Doobi gey dyunuwe ha AD. || The United Nations is also called the UN.
 * Ha AD || The UN
 * }
 * Ha Anxwa Doobi gey dyunuwe ha AD. || The United Nations is also called the UN.
 * Ha AD || The UN
 * }
 * Ha AD || The UN
 * }

= Punctuation =
 * Punctuation and the rules governing it are basically the same as in English, except for one difference. The part of a sentence in Mirad that introduces a direct quotation uses a colon  instead of a comma, eg.:


 * It da: "At voy te."  .... He said, "I don't know."