Lentis/Urban Farming

Urban Farming
Urban farming is the practice of producing and distributing food around urban areas. This chapter focuses on the modern urban farming movement in the United States, first by analyzing the history of urban farming in the U.S. and then through the societal and technological motivations.

Background
The history of farming in the U.S. shows how food production ended up being so far from the point of consumption and how modern urban farming is unique from past examples.

History
For most of human history, urban civilizations developed around agriculture. Early permanent settlements were enabled by the switch from hunter-gathering to farming, dubbed by historians as the Neolithic Revolution. In colonial times 90% of the workforce was involved in agriculture mostly small-scale urban sustenance farms. The United States westward expansion and technological advancements of the Industrial Revolution brought a change to farming in the 1800s. The Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged farmers to spread out by giving away free federal land out west. Inventions like the cotton gin, the fertilizer industry, factory-made agricultural machinery, and the change from hand to horse-powered farming allowed for increased yields and profitability of farming. These technologies resulted in economies of scale and a trend of larger farms as many farmers could not afford the equipment. As farms required more space they continued to move further away from cities. The refrigerated freight car, patented in 1867, enabled farmers to take advantage of the intercontinental railway systems. Food from California could now end up on a dinner plate in New York. By 1910, 31% of the labor force worked in agriculture and technological advancements have continued lead to less, larger farms in the US. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) states less than 2% of the US workforce was involved in agriculture in 2014.

War and Depression
There have been exceptions to the general trend of replacement of local sustenance farming to farming as a business. During periods of intense need like depressions, World War 1 and World War 2 urban farming was used to supplement food production. During the 1890s, as the City of Detroit faced a depression, Mayor Hazen S. Pingree encouraged people to turn any empty land in the city into vegetable patches. While World War I was fought European men involved in farming were recruited as soldiers creating a food crisis in the continent. The United States began to export more than double the value of foods, from $193 million worth in 1913 to $510 million in 1916. The National War Garden Commission used propaganda to promote the urban farms, dubbed “Victory Gardens”, to support the war effort by allowing food produced on conventional farms to be exported. During the Second World War, victory gardens were again seen as a way U.S. citizens could help in the war effort with about half of all fruit and vegetables produced in the U.S. grown on urban farms.

Resurgence
Recently there has been a resurgence in urban farming. Show through Google ngram, the term “urban farming” started to gain traction in the 1990s. Several projects have popped up around the country. In 2009, Michelle Obama planted a vegetable garden at the White House as an example of urban farms promoting healthier eating. In 2010, Brooklyn Grange, the largest rooftop farm in the world, was started New York City. The Grange provides locally grown vegetables and herbs to the New York area as well as urban farming consulting. Instead of need-based these projects are driven by a cultural shift in values.

Complaints with Standard Practices
The use of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and antibiotics has increased dramatically since the mid-1900s. This shift has played a large role in not only increasing the size of modern farms and livestock farms but also in reducing consumer trust of "traditional agricultural products" as products like DDT are banned for endangering the Bald Eagle and the herbicides 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D (more commonly known as Agent Orange, used during the Vietnam War) are implicated for causing health issues for Vietnamese citizens, veterans, and their children.

Fertilizers and Pesticides
The amount of fertilizers used in the U.S. has increased dramatically since the mid-1900s with the invention of nitrogen and phosphorous based fertilizers. Total fertilizer use increased from 6 million tons applied annually in 1960 to over 20 million tons in 2014, and many have begun to raise concerns about the environmental and health implications of this increased use, as discussed in Organic Foods Movement.

Around 1.1 billion pounds (12.5 billion dollars) worth of pesticides and herbicides were used in the U.S. in 2007, around 80% of which were used in agriculture. Of this, most were the herbicides 2,4-D and glyphosate, both of which remain present on food produced from these farms and travel long distances in river systems. Both 2,4-D and glyphosate have been labelled "probably carcinogenic to humans", and glyphosate is suspected of causing the rise in gluten intolerance and celiac disease in the U.S. . Glyphosate has even been found in blood and breastmilk at levels 760 to 1600 times higher than the European Drinking Water Directive Allows, although this is well below the limit set by the EPA.

Organic fertilizers and pesticides also come with a variety of problems, as organic fertilizers can still harm wildlife, pets, and cause the buildup of heavy metals in the soil, while organic insecticides have been shown to have higher Environment Impact Quotients in the field.

Meat Industry
Over 95% of farm animals in the U.S. are raised in factory farms, which notably neglect animal welfare, despite the fact that in polls 94% of Americans agree that animals raised for food should live free from abuse and cruelty. On these farms, animals are often fed cocktails of antibiotics to avoid rapid spread of disease due to cramped conditions, not only increasing the risk for the consumer of unintended antibiotic consumption but also leading to drug-resistant strands of infections. Organizations like PETA and the ASPCA lobby against "factory farming" for causing harm to animal and human health as well as the environment, and many Americans are turning to vegan, vegetarian, or majority plant-based diets over this issue.

Environmental Costs
The environmental cost of transportation is often a motivation for the opposition of globalization of food. In establishing the global food trade, seasonal foods are now accessible year-round. However, there are severe environmental costs to this system, including water and air pollution. The commonly quoted statistic, "food travels 1,500 miles from farm to plate" in the U.S., has been used as a rallying cry for the |Local Food Movement. Although this statistic is misleading, it does bring awareness to the environmental costs of transporting food. According to the U.S. Department of Energy more than two billion metric tons of carbon dioxide, the primary greenhouse gas, was emitted from transportation in 2007. Cutting down on the food miles of a meal can drastically decrease the carbon footprint of food.

The topsoil layer is the nutrient-rich layer of soil in which most plants are grown. Topsoil degradation thus threatens food security, and this trend may eventually lead to the adoption of agricultural practices such as hydroponics that do not depend on soil. The fertility of topsoil can be degraded due to natural processes or anthropogenic factors, such as standard farming practices. Tilling can break up the topsoil, accelerating erosion. Tilling and the practice of growing crops in monocultures also contributes to the depletion of soil nutrients, which are crucial for maintaining the soil microbiome. Regenerative farming, a practice that can trace back its roots to indigenous cultures, has been proposed as a tool to help address topsoil degradation.

Some groups are advocating for regenerative farming practices to mitigate topsoil degradation and enable the profitable continuation of soil-dependent agriculture. Regeneration America is a coalition of companies, farmers, and environmental groups, that are lobbying Congress to dedicate 5 to 10 percent of a 2023 farm bill's funding on regenerative farming, as the previous 2018 farm bill dedicated only 1 percent of its funding to promoting regenerative farming. However, some agricultural groups, such as the American Farm Bureau Federation, have been lobbying for programs that slow the adoption of sustainable practices. One of their priorities for the 2023 farm bill is federal crop insurance and risk management programs that insures farmers against crop losses from weather and natural causes. Climate activists argue that federal crop insurance enables the profitability of unsustainable agricultural practices.

Food Deserts
The USDA defines food deserts as "parts of the country vapid of fresh fruit, vegetables, and other healthful whole foods, usually found in impoverished areas". With conventional food distribution, many people in cities live in food deserts preventing them from maintaining a healthy diet. They are more likely to have diabetes, higher BMI, and higher healthcare costs. Urban farming can supplement these areas with fresh produce so people with low income eat healthier. Food security is especially a concern in developing countries that are rapidly undergoing urbanization. As the expansion of the geographic extent of cities occurs, productive agricultural land is lost. The UN Sustainable Development Goals emphasizes planning smart cities and discusses urban sprawl and its contribution to food insecurity and natural resource depletion.

Complementary Movements
The rising popularity of urban farming was heavily impacted by other movements that took off in tandem.

Community Gardens
Community gardens are plots of land shared by members of the local community for growing fruits, vegetables and herbs. They became widespread across North America and Europe during the First and Second World Wars as a way to supplement war-time rations. Contemporary community gardens are often established as an alternative source of fresh food. In addition to serving as an alternative food source, community gardens provide various health and social benefits. Community gardens directly provide access to affordable, fresh produce. Actively participating in the process of growing food with a community can bridge the gap between access to healthy food and desire for it. A study found that people who were part of a community garden ate 1.4 times (per day) more fruit and vegetables than those who did not participate and were 3.5 times more likely to eat the recommended 5 servings of vegetables per day. Beyond the nutritional value of community gardens, they enable people to engage in physical activity and skills building. Community gardens also serve as green spaces in urban areas — used to beautify vacant lots, revive and beautify public parks, and generally can revitalize communities in industrial areas. Establishing such green spaces can even decrease violence in neighborhoods.

Types of community gardens
There are different types of community gardens.


 * Plot gardens are divided into individual plots. Typically, a garden is subdivided into family-sized plots ranging from 100 to 500 square feet. Sections of the gardens may be reserved for the community to grow crops too large to be cultivated in individual plots, such as corn, pumpkins, watermelons, fruit trees, etc. Gardeners then divide the harvest from these shared plots. On a quarter-acre lot, there is room for about 35 garden plots.
 * Cooperative gardens are gardens where the community works together on large garden. Produce from such gardens are sometimes distributed equitably to all member gardeners. Often cooperative gardens are associated with communities of faith, civic groups, or service organizations that support local food banks and soup kitchens by donating cultivated foods.
 * Youth gardens are found in many primary schools in the United States. In addition to being a valuable teaching environment, youth gardens are spaces intentionally designed to foster responsibility, patience, and curiosity in students. Most often, raised-bed gardens or sections of the school landscape are assigned to classes. Hands-on curriculum and activities are selected to support standard course requirements for science and nutrition classes. Maintaining school gardens may require extensive volunteer support.
 * Entrepreneurial market gardens aim to sell produce. Gardeners learn business principles and skills as they grow and sell produce at local markets and to local restaurants. These gardens provide a unique opportunity for gardeners to develop their green thumb and build business acumen.
 * Therapeutic gardens focus on using gardening to holistically improve wellbeing of gardeners and their families. They are located in hospitals, nursing homes, assisted living facilities, retirement communities, outpatient treatment centers, botanical gardens, and other locations. Therapeutic gardens are designed to be accessible to people with physical limitations, with features such as raised beds, firm pathways, braille signage, special tools  for gardeners with limited physical strength and other accommodations. They can be designed for active gardening programs or as a serene space for reflection.

Social Media
Social media has been heavily implicated in influencing public opinion and reflecting social values. Online platforms such as YouTube and Pinterest have been especially beneficial in distributing knowledge about urban farming practices. YouTube provides visual representations in intuitive ways, while Pinterests presents ideas to foster creativity and pique interest.

Healthy Eating
As a result of increased social awareness of the issues with industrial farming, healthy food choice has become an important social value. Vegetarian and vegan diets have also become increasingly common in the US. There has also been a considerable movement towards organic food sources. This Organic Foods Movement has led to an increased demand for produce grown and maintained without harmful chemicals or hormones. This, in addition to the increasing social awareness of the environmental impact of food production and transport, calls for a stronger push for locally-based food.

With increasing distrust in industrial farming, communities began searching for food sources with smaller environmental impact and higher quality maintenance. Sources of interest include foods that were locally obtained and also cultivated without the use of harmful chemicals. This shift away from industrial farming towards anti-consumerism is heavily supported by the Local Food Movement. Local food has made considerable efforts to develop more self-reliant and resilient food networks, and has also stimulated local economies and community building. It also expands to include university communities like that of Utah State University. As citizens in urban areas began to adopt the ideals of the Local Food Movement, interest in developing urban farming practices continue to rise.

Decolonizing Agriculture
The decolonization of knowledge is a movement that focuses on unlearning legacies of colonization, which involves legitimizing knowledge systems other than Eurocentric ones. Values that are present in indigenous communities, such as collective resources and community management, are key to the success of urban farming practices like community gardens. Aztec farmers successfully employed hydroponic principles with their chinampas, which were raised platforms of mud where the soil fertility was maintained using nutrient-rich water. The fertility of chinampas was almost self-sustaining, as farmers would allow populations of fish in the water courses, supplement the water with animal manure, and feed these same animals with excess food produced from the chinampas. As a result, these chinampa were had high yield per land area and could sustainably produce up to 4 crops each year. Native Americans also practiced intercropping and low-tilling, techniques that researchers today are interested in for reducing resource inputs and improving crop yields.

Despite the fact that many urban farming practices draw inspiration from indigenous communities, these communities still suffer from federal policies that disrupted native food systems and ways of life. Many Native American reservations are categorized as food deserts, and 25 percent of American and Alaskan natives from 2000 to 2010 were food insecure, twice the rate of white Americans.

Urban Farming Globally
The worst food crisis since 1974 broke out in 2007-08. Higher global food commodity prices (especially wheat, rice, soya, and maize) have led to a previously unheard-of surge in the number of hungry people. Despite modest expense reductions since the summer of 2008, the number of hungry persons rose in 2009. Therefore, some countries on different continents have paid attention to urban agriculture due to its benefits. Singapore currently imports 90% of its food supply, and with the global pandemic and geopolitical tensions, Singapore suffered a lot regarding food. Hence, to make its food supply more resilient, Singaporean government has set an ambitious goal to produce 30% of its own food by 2030. As the world's urban population continues to grow, urban farms are popping up inside, outside, and everywhere in Singapore. They built 260 edible gardens whether for homes, hotels, or restaurants, on top of shopping malls, schools, and all around the city. In 2009 the policy LUSH, which stands for Landscaping for Urban Spaces and High-Rises, requires developers to include greenery in their designs and contribute to the growth of a significant landscaping business in Singapore city. Singapore is looking at increasing production from the one percent of land through technological approaches: vertical building farms, factory indoor farms, batter farm production systems for eggs, and intensive aquaculture systems. Sky greens use hydraulic power to rotate and irrigate crops in modular vertical farms. The racks can be stacked up to 9 meters and housed in outdoor greenhouses. In partnership with the Singapore Food Agency, Citiponics (Urban Vertical Farm) opened a commercial pilot farm on the rooftop of a multi-story car park where it grows lettuce, spinach, and basil.

Since 2020 the government has offered up to 16 car park rooftop sites to be rented out for three years as urban farms; also, these urban farms can help to cool the city through rooftop greenery. Due to the collapse in the Soviet Union, which caused the country to lose about half of its oil supplies, Cuba also began establishing its urban agricultural infrastructure in1990. Cities such as Sao Paulo, Seoul, and Tokyo now have urban agricultural projects. Farming within the limits of a city is becoming increasingly popular across the world. Exciting initiatives are taking place on almost every continent. shanghai, China is one of the world's most densely inhabited cities. The city is embracing urban farming to clean the air and feed its rising population. Laogang is an enormous trash dump; it composts about 80% of the organic material that enters its gates. turning it into potent fertilizer. This fertilizer is then used in the city's agricultural zone, where the municipal government produces about 55% of the vegetables and 90% of the green-leaf vegetables consumed in the city. Also, an unprecedented food crisis has engulfed the world, exacerbated by the conflict in Ukraine; it has resulted in soaring food prices, starvation, and the possibility of much worse. As result, all other countries must participate in this initiative to alleviate the food situation.

Technology
In places where arable land is unavailable (such as urban areas), technological innovations spearhead local food production. Vertical farming lowered the water requirement more than 50%, and also saved a considerable amount of space and soil. Techniques applied in urban vertical farms include hydroponics and aeroponics. In hydroponics, the roots of plants are submerged in a circulated solution of nutrients instead of cluttering, more expensive soil. Aeroponics on the other hand involves growing plants in a moist environment where nutrients and water are sprayed on the roots regularly. Aquaponics combines plant and fish farming, where fish wastewater from indoor ponds provide nutrients for plants, and they in turn purify and filter the water to be sent back to the ponds.

There are a number of applications of the above farming techniques in cities all over the world. The plantscaper proposed by Plantagon in Sweden employs the concept of green infrastructure by creating space for agriculture in urban areas. It is projected to produce at least 550 tons of vegetables every year. VertiCrop has also been developed as a growing method that yields up to 20 times more than normal field crops, and requires just 8% of the water used in soil farming. ModularFarms also developed a system that is flexible enough to be able to produce plants in virtually any climate and location in the world. Cubic Farms uses conveyor rotation and LED lighting to regulate their produce to have higher consistency, longer shelf life, and higher nutritional content. Vertical farms like these are built to be incorporated into urban infrastructure, and they have become increasingly popular in the US.

Conclusion
Like Screen-Free Child Rearing, Urban farming is a case study that demonstrates how social values can change the way people use technology.

This chapter emphasizes the history and motivations behind the Urban Farming movement, but much attention should be paid to the current responses.

Companies and non-profits have sprung up throughout the U.S. in cities like Seattle, Detroit, and Baltimore supporting the positive social, economic, and environmental effects of Urban Farming. In opposition, the chemical manufacturing company Monsanto, conventional farmers, and even some local governments oppose Urban Farming for reasons including a loss of market shares and enforcement of regulations banning local gardens and livestock.

Urban Farming is a growing movement, but its viability on a large scale and other factors still need to be explored.