Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Skyline Drive

This page is for a case study on the Shenandoah National Park scenic byway, Skyline Drive, created by Johnathan Selmer, Jay Shuey, and Guillermo Padilla. It is part of the GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-002 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) class offered at George Mason University taught by Jonathon Gifford.

Summary
The idea of Skyline Drive was first suggested in 1924. In a report from the Southern Appalachian National Park Commission to Secretary of the Interior Hubert Work recommending the establishment of a national park in this area, it was pointed out:




 * “The greatest single feature, however, is a possible skyline drive along the mountain top, following a continuous ridge and looking westerly on the Shenandoah Valley, from 2,500 to 3,500 feet below, and also commanding a view of the Piedmont Plain stretching easterly to the Washington Monument, which landmark may be seen on a clear day. Few scenic drives in the world could surpass it.”

Under the joint supervision of the Bureau of Public Roads and the National Park Service, construction of Skyline Drive began in 1931. By September 15, 1934, the first section of the Drive, 34 miles long, was opened for travel. This made available an extensive region of the Blue Ridge in which was located the vast central portion of the proposed Shenandoah National Park extending from Thornton Gap to Swift Run Gap. Within a year more than one-half million visitors were attracted to this portion of the park.

Today, Skyline Drive has grown and now runs 105 miles north and south along the crest of the Blue Ridge Mountains and continues being the only public road through the Park – attracting over 1.2-million travelers annually.

History/Timeline

 * 1924: Southern Appalachian National Park Committee selects the site for a national park in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia, leading to the establishment of Shenandoah National Park.
 * 1929: President Herbert Hoover calls for the construction of a roadway along the Blue Ridge Mountains, initially proposed to be named Hoover Highway but later known as Skyline Drive.
 * January 1931: Field survey for Skyline Drive begins.
 * July 18, 1931: Official groundbreaking for Skyline Drive.
 * Late 1932: Congress approves $1 million for the construction of Skyline Drive.
 * 1933: Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) is formed and contributes to the construction of Skyline Drive.




 * Mid-1934: Section of Skyline Drive between Thornton Gap and Swift Run Gap opens.
 * 1935: Shenandoah National Park officially established, CCC continues construction on Skyline Drive.
 * October 1, 1936: Skyline Drive completed between Front Royal and Thornton Gap.
 * August 29, 1939: Portion of Skyline Drive from Swift Run Gap to Jarman Gap opens.
 * August 11, 1939: Completion of the Blue Ridge Parkway section between Jarman Gap and Rockfish Gap, later incorporated into Shenandoah National Park as the southernmost portion of Skyline Drive in 1961.
 * 1950s: Original chestnut log guardrails on Skyline Drive removed and not replaced.
 * 1958: Marys Rock Tunnel partially lined with concrete.
 * 1983: Federal Highway Administration begins work to replace original stone walls on Skyline Drive with concrete walls.
 * April 28, 1997: Skyline Drive added to the National Register of Historic Places.
 * September 22, 2005: Skyline Drive designated a National Scenic Byway.
 * October 2008: Skyline Drive designated a National Historic Landmark for its role in the development of national parks in the eastern United States.

Funding and Financing

 * Official groundbreaking was July 18, 1931, although the actual field survey began in January of that year.
 * First section of construction initially was to be from Rapidan Camp to the Skyland Resort, some twenty miles, but evolved into the 34 miles from Swift Run Gap (U.S. 33) to Thornton Gap (U.S. 211). Original funds were allocated by the Federal Drought Relief Administration to employ Virginia farmers and apple pickers suffering from the severe drought impacts on the apple and produce harvests in 1930.
 * Congress appropriated $1,000,000 the fall of 1932 to continue construction of the Drive and the Department of the Interior announced that the Drive would extend from Swift Run Gap to Front Royal.
 * Roosevelt formed the Civilian Conservation Corps and the first two companies in the National Park Service were formed at Skyland (NP-1) and Big Meadows (NP-2). Shenandoah National Park would eventually benefit from ten CCC camps. May, 1933.
 * Skyline Drive from Thornton Gap to Swift Run Gap was completed in the summer of 1934 and opened to the public on September 15, 1934. This section cost $1,570,479 or approximately $39,000/mile.
 * Skyline Drive from Thornton Gap to Front Royal (32 miles) was opened to the public on October 1, 1936 and cost $ 1,235,177 or approximately $42,000/mile.
 * Skyline Drive from Swift Run Gap to Jarman Gap (32.4 miles) was opened to the public on August 29,1939 and cost $1,666,528 or approximately $51,500/mile.
 * Skyline Drive (then Blue Ridge Parkway) from Jarman Gap to Rockfish Gap (8.5 miles) was completed on August 11, 1939 and cost $358,636 or, approximately, $40,000/mile. [The southernmost section of the Drive from Jarman Gap to Rockfish Gap was originally constructed in 1938-1939 as a part of the Blue Ridge Parkway and was deeded to Shenandoah National Park in 1961.
 * Fees are collected at entry points to Skyline Drive (Front Royal, Thornton Gap, Swift Run Gap, Rockfish Gap). Pass options include:
 * $30.00 for a seven-day pass for private non-commercial vehicles
 * $25.00 for motorcycles, $15.00 for individuals 16 and older (not in private non-commercial vehicles)
 * Commercial tours pay between $25.00 and $200.00 based on passengers
 * Annual park pass: $55.00 for private non-commercial vehicles
 * America the Beautiful Pass options:
 * Annual Pass: $80.00
 * Annual Senior Pass: $20.00
 * Lifetime Senior Pass: $80.00
 * Lifetime Access Pass (free for persons with disabilities)
 * Volunteer Pass (free for 250 service hours)
 * Free Annual Pass for U.S. Armed Forces members
 * Free admission for fourth graders' families with the Every Kid in a Park Pass.

Institutional Arrangements - Oversight and Maintenance
Key Actors and Institutions involved with the development and maintenance of the Skyline Drive include:




 * National Park Service (NPS): The designated federal agency responsible for the oversight and maintenance of the entire Skyline Drive.
 * Department of the Interior (DOI): The parent agency that the NPS resides under, DOI directs funding towards NPS projects and collects fees from each park that the NPS administers.
 * Southern Appalachian National Park Committee (SANPC): SANPC played a pivotal role in informing the general public about the overarching national park system and specifically about the creation of Southern Appalachia, as legislated by Congress.
 * Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): The CCC provided the necessary labor force for the construction of Skyline Drive, receieved financial backing, and oversaw the implementation of the scenic byway.
 * Federal Highway Administration (FHA): FHA contributed to the design and provided some oversight during the construction of Skyline Drive. Given its jurisdiction over Federal lands, the FHA ensured compliance with its established standards throughout the development of Skyline Drive.

Narrative of the Case
In the late 19th century, widespread exploitation of natural resources, particularly in the Western regions, prompted growing concerns regarding wasteful practices and the need for conservation measures.

President Theodore Roosevelt emerged as a leading advocate for conservation, making calls for federal oversight of resources and the protection of wilderness areas. Collaborating with influential figures such as John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club, advocated preservation of natural resources from use, while Gifford Pinchot, a forester, called instead for conservation, the proper use of natural resources. Together, environmentalist advocacy of different types led to the establishment of the National Park Service by Congress in 1916, and the preservation of areas including Yosemite and Yellowstone. In addition, the Roosevelt administration implemented significant policies, notably the Newlands Act of 1902 and the establishment of the National Conservation Commission in 1909.

The proposal for a ridge road along the Blue Ridge mountains in Virginia was initially embraced as part of a new National Park plan in 1924. However, it sparked intense controversy within the conservation community. Benton MacKaye, a key figure in conservation, opposed the road, fearing it would disrupt the wilderness. On the other hand, Myron Avery, known for his leadership in trail construction, supported the road's inclusion in the Skyline Drive project. Their clash highlighted differing views on wilderness preservation versus accessibility.

Despite MacKaye's objections, the road was built, deepening the divide between preservationists and those advocating for broader public access to nature. The conflict underscored the complexities involved in balancing conservation objectives with societal interests. While MacKaye emphasized preserving the untouched wilderness of the Appalachian region, Avery prioritized practical trail construction and public engagement. Their disagreement left a lasting impact on the history of conservation in the United States, serving as a significant chapter in the evolving narrative of wilderness preservation.

Policy Issues
Environmental Impact & Wildlife Management:

The way Shenandoah National Park has approached their environmental and wildlife management has evolved over time to address challenges from increased human activities, including as they pertain to Skyline Drive. A scenic byway stretching 105 miles through the park, Skyline Drive aimed to provide visitors with stunning views of the Blue Ridge Mountains from the comfort of their vehicles. However, this monumental undertaking altered the landscape and ecosystems and created long-lasting consequences for the park's natural environment.



The construction phase of Skyline Drive involved extensive land clearing, grading, and paving, which resulted in the destruction and fragmentation of local habitats. Habitat fragmentation impedes the movement of wildlife populations, inhibits gene flow between isolated habitats, and increases the vulnerability of species to extinction. Forested areas were cleared to make way for the roadway meanwhile excavations and the construction of bridges and retaining walls altered the park's natural drainage and rate of soil erosion. Skyline Drive's ongoing use as a popular tourist attraction and recreational thoroughfare has continued to impact Shenandoah National Park's environment and wildlife. Influxes of traffic along the roadway introduced air and noise pollution, which disrupted wildlife behavior, and posed risks to pedestrian safety. Regular road maintenance, such as asphalt resurfacing and roadside vegetation management, continue to act as a catalyst of environmental degradation. Invasive species along road corridors pose a threat to native plant communities and exacerbates competition for resources.

Despite these environmental challenges, legislation such as the Clean Air Act, enacted in 1970, have provided regulatory frameworks for environmental protection in Shenandoah National Park. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 required the protection of at-risk species like the Shenandoah Salamander. Recent technological advancements allow park officials to evaluate management effectiveness and monitor wildlife, habitat, and ecosystem health more closely. The SWAS-VTSSS (Stream Water and Sediment Chemistry, Virginia Tech School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences) monitoring program, initiated in 1979, plays a crucial role in evaluating water quality and ecological conditions in mountain streams affected by Skyline Drive and other anthropogenic activities. The program contributes to evidence-based and adaptive management practices in Shenandoah National Park by collecting comprehensive data on stream water chemistry, discharge rates, and ecological responses. The National Park Conservation Association's (NPCA) "Polluted Parks Report" underscores the ongoing challenges posed by air pollution in Shenandoah National Park. Despite its designation as one of only 49 Class I air areas managed by the National Park Service, the park continues to experience significant air quality concerns stemming from external sources of pollution. Efforts to address air quality concerns involve sophisticated monitoring systems, regulatory compliance, and collaborative initiatives to reduce pollution levels and preserve the park's natural resources.

Land Acquisition & Eminent Domain:

The policy of land acquisition and eminent domain for the creation of Shenandoah National Park was a multifaceted and contentious process that unfolded over several years in the 1930s. Discussions about the park's creation began in 1924, but it wasn't until February 1, 1934, that the federal government under Arno Cammerer, director of the National Park Service, announced that the government would not accept land for the park from the state of Virginia until all residents had left the area.



In 1928, the Virginia legislature passed a condemnation law which allowed the state to acquire land for park via eminent domain. However, the law faced opposition from landowners who felt undervalued by the state's appraisal process. By 1933, landowners owning about 20,000 acres of land had contested the appraised values, leading to appeal hearings and delays in the acquisition process. The blanket condemnation law also faced legal challenges, most notably in the case of Robert H. Via, who sued the state on constitutional grounds citing the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Although Via's appeal was ultimately rejected by the Supreme Court in November 1935, his legal battle slowed the land acquisition process. Furthermore, an estimated 268 families living in Shenandoah at the time had no legal claim to the land they had inhabited for generations. The total number of families affected by the removals and resettlement efforts exceeded 500.

The "buy an acre" campaign was another significant facet of the park's creation. This campaign aimed to raise funds for land acquisition through public donations. Led by the Shenandoah National Park Association, park backers initiated a campaign aimed at persuading Virginians from around the state to contribute to the land fund. With a slogan advocating that Virginians "Buy an Acre" for $6.00, the fundraising drive raised nearly $1.2 million dollars. Approximately $1 million of funding came from state appropriations at the urging of Governor Byrd. Park enthusiasts also tried to secure donations from noted philanthropists. Carson had hoped to raise $2 million dollars from these notable figures, but only won a small percentage of that amount. With celebrity philanthropists largely absent from the list of supporters and with the onset of the Depression in 1930 sharply curtailing other fundraising efforts, park supporters had raised only slightly more than half of the estimated $4 million dollars needed to purchase the 321,000 acres. Consequently, Carson once again prevailed upon Congress to reduce the park's size. In 1932, Congress made its final acreage reduction, drastically reducing the minimum acreage needed for the park to be established to 160,000 acres, less than one-third the original congressional authorization mandated.



The removals began in earnest after the federal government officially accepted title to 176,429.8 acres of land from Virginia on December 26, 1935. By early 1938, fewer than four years after Cammerer's removal order, between 500 and 600 families had permanently left their homes in the park. The removals were often met with resistance, resulting even with some families needing to be forcibly evicted by local law enforcement.

Initiatives were undertaken to assist displaced families in resettling. One such initiative was the Federal Homestead Corporation (FHC), which initially aimed to establish homesteads for former residents. This initiative was stalled due to its extensive bureaucratic process and legal issues. The project was later revived under the Resettlement Administration (RA) in 1937. Efforts of the RA resulted in the construction of homesteads in locations across Page, Greene, Madison, Rappahannock, and Rockingham county and were estimated to cost $6,000 per homestead. Of the more than 500 families affected by removals, only 170 families qualified for and were placed in these homesteads. However, the homesteads included mortgages and monthly bills to which many of these discplaced families were unaccustomed to. Within two decades, none of the original mountain families remained within their resettlement homesteads.

Key Lessons and Takeaways
In the broader context of national parks, large government projects such as Skyline Drive are an example of planners and policymakers utilizing the government's sole authority to acquire private property for public use through eminent domain. Eminent domain has always been and will remain a heated topic for debate within the United State’s legal system, with the pushback citing constitutional arguments for protections against the deprivation of life, liberty, and property, juxtaposed with the government’s authority to violate those said protections with reasonable cause and just compensation.

Skyline Drive in Shenandoah National Park serves as a stark reminder of the delicate balance between human development and environmental preservation in national parks. The construction and use of this scenic byway demonstrates the lasting effects that human activities can have on natural landscapes. The National Park Service has committed itself to spreading awareness of related environmental issues and promoting more sustainable practices to preserve America’s most treasured landscapes for generations to come.

Discussion Questions
1. How do you think the construction of Skyline Drive reflects the broader tension between preserving wilderness areas and making them accessible to the public?

2. How do you view the ethical and legal implications of eminent domain in the context of conservation efforts and public infrastructure projects?

3. How might compensation initiatives for eminent domain take into account the cultural and historical connections of individuals who lack a legal claim to the land they have called home for generations? Should those individuals be compensated?

4. Scenic roads through national parks offer a chance to experience nature up close. However, they also become arenas for tension among pedestrians, cyclists, and motorists, all vying for use of these spaces. How can policymakers balance the enjoyment of these roads for different users while ensuring safety and preservation of the natural environment?

5. Considering the current political climate, do you believe a project like Skyline Drive could be undertaken today? Would a venture of this nature, balancing preservation (protection against use) and conservation (proper use of natural resources), even be considered?