Handbook of the Swatow Vernacular modernized/Grammar

Grammar
Substantives and Adjectives are not declined: the same word expresses both the singular and the plural. Pronouns hove a plural form.

Singular. Plural.

我 Uá, I. 阮. 咱 Ún or nán, we.

爾 Lṳ́, thou or you. 恁 Nín, ye or you.

伊 I, he, she, it. 因. 伊人 I or i--nâng, they, them.

The distinctions of moods, tenses, numbers and persons are shown by the addition of certain auxiliary verbs or particles, as follows:—

indicative mood.

past tense.
The common signs of the Past Tense are 有 ũ and 甞 chêng, and are employed chiefly in asking questions and in giving answers, but seldom when a subject is simply being spoken of, viz.—

perfect tense.
The chief signs of the Perfect Tense are 了 lióu, 正 chiàⁿ, 識 pat, 有 ũ, 未 būe, and 亞未 a-būe.

Lióu[1] 了 (finish) can only be used to subjects being spoken of, and cannot be used in asking questions, viz.—

Chiàⁿ 正 (just) and 識 pat (ever) can be used both to questions and answers, viz.—

Ũ (have) 有 in the Perfect Tense, generally followed by the interrogative sign 亞未 a-būe, is used for questions only, and 未 būe (not yet) is used for answers, viz.—

future tense.
The chief signs of the Future Tense are àiⁿ, 正要 chiàⁿ-àiⁿ, (want) 會 õi (can) and 袂 bõi (cannot.) viz.—

potential mood.
The signs of the Potential Mood are 會 õi, 袂 bõi, 會得 õi-tit, 袂得 bõi-tit, 好 hó, 着 tiéh, and 不可 m̄-móⁿ.

Õi (can) 會 implies ability, and 袂 bõi (cannot) implies its opposite, inability.

Õi-tit (can) 會得 implies possibility, and 袂得 bõi-tit (cannot) implies impossibility.

Hó 好 is very nearly the same as the English auxiliary verb may, and implies liberty.

Tiéh 着 (must, ought, or should) implies obligation.

M̄-móⁿ (don't) 不可 implies the opposite of 着 tiéh, viz. must not, ought not, and should not.

The Passive verb is formed by the use of the words 分 pun, 乞 khoih (to give) and 分人 pun--nâng (give people.)

The Progressive Form is formed by the use of the word 在 tõ (in the act of) and 要 iàⁿ (want.)

the comparative degree.
The words employed in the comparative degree are 愈 zú, 敬 kèng, (more) 𢰳 ióu, (a little) 過 kùe, (over) 贏 iâⁿ (to be superior, to defeat,) and 輸, (to be inferior, to be defeated.)

the superlative degree.
The words employed in the superlative degree are 上 siãng and 上頂 siãng-téng (supreme); the latter generally refers to the qualities of goods, viz.—