E-bikes and Personal Mobility

Introduction
One of the first electric bike patents was given to Ogden Bolton Junior in the United States in 1895. This bike housed a battery suspended from the frame with a DC motor attached to the back wheel. In 1897, Hosea W. Libbey patented a bicycle with two electric motors. These initial designs were more similar to scooters or mopeds, as they did not have pedals. From the 1990s and onwards, electric bikes were produced with pedals, called Pedelecs.

Modern e-bikes are equipped with lithium-ion batteries, with some older models using lead-acid batteries. They can be charged with a standard wall outlet, and one charge allows a range of 20-100 miles, varying with factors such as brand and model, average speed, terrain and environmental factors, rider weight, and amount of pedaling. In most American areas, there are no license or insurance requirements to operate an e-bike on roadways.

Growth of the E-Bike Market
Deloitte projected that more than 130 million e-bikes will be sold from 2020 to 2023, outpacing electric vehicle sales. In 2021, 880,000 e-bikes were imported in the U.S. alone, while an estimated 608,000 electric vehicles were sold. According to NPD, in the 12 months before July 2021, e-bike sales grew 240%.

Financial Costs of E-Bikes
The price of purchasing an e-bike can range from $600 to over $8000, with the average price in the range of $1,000 to $3,000. The price is dependent on the essential materials for the battery, power of the battery and motor, and the cost of the traditional parts and the frame. Materials like lithium and cobalt used in making lithium-ion batteries, widespread in e-bikes, can be volatile. Supply-chain issues have resulted in the price of lithium to increase 900% since 2021. As with buying any bike, e-bikes that cost less than $1000 may have low-quality parts and have decreased longevity. E-bikes are still new technology and have time to mature at which their prices may decrease.

Most e-bikes today cost less than half a penny per mile to charge; when considering the average range of 60 miles, this amounts to 30 cents of electricity per charge. Assuming a rider will charge their e-bike every day, this amounts to a mere $109 worth of fuel costs in a year. In comparison, a Tesla Model 3 costs approximately $708 to charge per year, while a 2022 Jeep Cherokee requires approximately $1,986 annually in gasoline costs.

E-Bike Sharing Infrastructure
A public bike-sharing infrastructure is a system that allows consumers to pick up available bikes for use throughout a designated area. This system can be docked, where stations are placed around an area for accessing bikes, or dockless, where the bike can be placed in an arbitrary location within a designated area.

Growth of E-bikes in Bike Sharing
According to NABSA, 298 cities in the U.S. have bikeshare or e-scooter infrastructure. The percentage of e-bikes in bikeshare systems has increased from 30% to 50% from 2019 to 2021. In 2019, Madison BCycle doubled their usage after adding e-bikes to their bikeshare fleet in Madison, Wisconsin. Madion BCycle cited a low fare and speed as the major factors to the increased popularity. In 2021, Chicago's Divvy bikeshare program, partnering with Lyft, introduced the first on-street charging in docks in the U.S. This move will increase the availability of e-bikes in Chicago.

Social Impacts of Bike Share Systems
In a study conducted by the Transportation Research and Education Center, 62% of e-bike trips in North America replaced those that would otherwise be taken by car. According to Bullock et al., greater access to bike-sharing resulted in a 16% increase of retail sales. Time savings yielded productivity gains from using an e-bike. E-bikes are viewed favorably due to their increased accessibility compared to regular bicycles and attract both families and recreational riders. E-bikes therefore attract a new category of riders that are not as advanced and tend to ride in groups.

Environmental Impacts
In a survey conducted in 2019, 30% of respondents cited environmental consideration as a reason for purchasing an e-bike. E-bikes are considered to be a zero emission form of transportation, disregarding the manufacturing process and assuming the e-bike is charged using clean energy. E-bikes are more efficient than electric passenger cars, getting 30 to 100 times more miles per pound of battery. This reduces the soil degradation, damage to ecosystem functions, and human rights violations associated with the mining of necessary battery metals such as lithium, nickel, and cobalt. E-bikes are also more efficient than traditional gasoline powered cars; e-bikes get a 1000 to over 4000 MPG equivalent, which is an energy content comparison of electricity and gasoline. Because e-bikes are smaller and lighter than their electric and gasoline vehicle counterparts, they cause less road damage and therefore less carbon intensive road repair is needed. Overall, the Climate Action Center found that e-bikes are 20 times more efficient than electric cars at fighting climate change.

Incentive Programs
A big barrier to e-bike adoption is the initial purchase price. To combat this, incentive programs have been developed to lower start up costs through tax rebates, vouchers, or rent-to-buy programs. 41% of these incentive programs are implemented by utility companies striving to meet greenhouse gas reduction requirements. 25% of incentive programs are local government based, and the remaining are state government or private company based. Only 25% of these programs are restricted to low- and mid-income citizens; this has raised debate over whether these incentive programs are actually targeting the right population and aiding those who cannot afford to purchase an e-bike.

Mobility & Accessibility
E-bikes can empower and accommodate the needs of diverse populations. The user-controlled additional source of power encapsulated in an e-bike allows cyclists to adjust their riding experience to meet their individual needs and demands. This autonomy makes biking more accessible for older adults, people with disabilities, and individuals who want to bike but are not able to endure the resistance of conventional biking. The ease of e-bikes also promote a more fit, active, and well balanced lifestyle for multiple populations that conventional biking is an inadequate mode of transportation. E-Bikes allow cyclists to bike farther distances, for longer periods of time, and through difficult terrain. It enhances riding experiences for slower riders, allows riders to commute to work without fatigue and altering their appearance, and permits inexperienced and experienced riders to share the experience by self-determining the amount of power utilized. In 2019, EVELO Electric Bicycles conducted a survey to elucidate the motive for the adoption of e-bikes in North America. Their results indicated older Americans, ages 55 to 74, were the largest group of e-bike owners. The vast majority of these e-bikers indicated they purchased their electric bike for recreation, to stay active, and to get in shape. This survey further emphasizes that e-bikes promote mobility and accommodate the needs of older individuals, contributing to a more fit and active lifestyle.

Limitations of E-Bikes
Amongst the abundance of advantages of e-bikes, there are three large detractors hindering adoption of the technology in America.

Safety

One major limitation of e-bikes is the higher rate of serious injury. The United States Consumer Product Safety Commission's National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) reported that e-bike riders are more likely to suffer from internal injuries, e-bike riding injuries are three times more likely to involve a crash with a pedestrian, and e-bike riders are more likely to suffer from concussions. Another study from VeiligheidNL, a Dutch organization, found that e-bike riders are 1.6 times more likely to end up in the emergency room than conventional bicyclists.

Environmental Concerns
The battery production and disposal associated with e-bikes pose environmental concerns due to the indirect pollution of the environment from increased power plant emissions and lead pollution from the heavy batteries.

Inappropriate for the American Roadways
The most prominent limitation is that e-bikes don’t fit on the American roadway. The typical top speed of an e-bike is about 20 mph and with the current infrastructure of American roadways, it may irritate slower conventional bicyclists and the faster car drivers.

Conclusion
E-bikes provide efficient practical and recreational transportation. They are a well established and growing technology beneficial for mid-range travel, combating climate change, and promoting bike accessibility for diverse populations.

Further ideas to continue researching include:


 * What are the sociopolitical implications of e-bike legislation?
 * How can high income individuals be incentivized to adopt e-bike usage over private vehicles?
 * Do e-bikes have appropriate road infrastructure to incentivize increased adoption?