A-level Critical Thinking/Flaws in Arguments

Appeal to Tradition

"we've always done it this way" Arguing that because something has always been done in one way in the past,it should continue to be done that way.

Appeal to Popularity

"Everyone likes them" Arguing that something must be the case or true or good because many people engage in an idea or activity.

Appeal to History

"If something has happened before, it will happen again." Arguing that what has happened in the past is always a guide to the future and/or the past will repeat itself.

Appeal to Emotion	

"These poor puppies have been abandoned and you could give them the loving home they so desperately need." Arguing through tugging at peoples emotions rather than through logical reasoning/argument.

Appeal to Authority

Trying to persuade a reader to accept an argument based on the respect for authority rather than logic.

False Dichotomy	

"either or" Reducing an argument to only two extreme options when there are other possibilities.

Restricting the Options	

E.g" We blindfold him or we knock him out....or you just let your fiancee your wedding dress." Presents a limited picture of choices available in a situation in order to support one particular option.

Confusing Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

E.g "I have done everything necessary,registered and trained for the race. But is it sufficient/enough for me to win the race?" Necessary conditions are conditions which must be fulfilled in order for an event to happen. Sufficient conditions are conditions which, if fulfilled, guarantee that an event will happen. Some people confuse necessary and sufficient conditions.

Hasty Generalisation	

Drawing a general conclusion from insufficient evidence/limited examples.

Conflation	

Putting two or more things together that aren't related. Treating two things as the same when in fact they aren't. eg. Obesity often conflated with lack of fitness.

Straw Man

Misrepresenting and exaggerating one part of the opponents argument in order to dismiss it and the entire argument. Changing or exaggerating an opponent's position or argument to make it easier to refute.

False Cause

Wrongly assumes a cause-and-effect relationship ('A' causes 'B' without proof that a relationship actually exists).

Slippery Slope	

Making one or more unsupported leaps in an argument to arrive at an extreme conclusion.

Circular Argument

"People like dogs because dogs are kind pets which people like." Where a reason is the same as the conclusion, so the argument doesn't go anywhere as it just restates the argument rather than actually proving it.

Non Sequitur	

Latin for "it does not follow." An inference or a conclusion that does not follow from the premises,evidence or reasoning given prior.

Ad Hominem

Latin meaning "against the man." In an argument, this is an attack on the person rather than on the opponent's ideas.

Post Hoc

Latin for "after this, therefore because of this." Arguing that because one thing follows another, the first caused the second. But sequence is not cause.

Add or remove terms from this set